Appendix:English Swadesh list
This is a Swadesh list of words in English. The word choice and pronunciations given in IPA transcription reflect the usage in General American English.
Presentation
[edit]- For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
List
[edit]| № | English | English English edit (207) | IPA (key) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I (1sg) | I | /aɪ/ |
| 2 | you (2sg) | you | /ju/ |
| 3 | he, she, it (3sg) | he (masculine), she (feminine), they (general), it (inanimate) | /hiː/, /ʃiː/, /ðeɪ/, /ɪt/ |
| 4 | we (1pl) | we | /wi/ |
| 5 | you (2pl) | you | /ju/ |
| 6 | they (3pl) | they | /ðeɪ/ |
| 7 | this | this | /ðɪs/ |
| 8 | that | that | /ðæt/ |
| 9 | here | here | /hɪɚ̯/ |
| 10 | there | there | /ðɛɚ/ |
| 11 | who | who | /huː/ |
| 12 | what | what | /wʌt/ |
| 13 | where | where | /ʍɛɚ/ |
| 14 | when | when | /ʍɛn/ |
| 15 | how | how | /haʊ/ |
| 16 | not | not | /nɒt/ |
| 17 | all | all | /ɔl/ |
| 18 | many | many | /ˈmɛni/ |
| 19 | some | some | /sʌm/ |
| 20 | few | few | /fjuː/ |
| 21 | other | other | /ˈʌðɚ/ |
| 22 | one | one | /wʌn/ |
| 23 | two | two | /tu/ |
| 24 | three | three | /θɹiː/ |
| 25 | four | four | /foɹ/ |
| 26 | five | five | /faɪv/ |
| 27 | big | big | /bɪɡ/ |
| 28 | long | long | /lɑŋ/ |
| 29 | wide | wide | /waɪd/ |
| 30 | thick | thick | /θɪk/ |
| 31 | heavy | heavy | /ˈhɛ.vi/ |
| 32 | small | small | /smɔl/ |
| 33 | short | short | /ʃoɹt/ |
| 34 | narrow | narrow | /ˈnæɹoʊ/ |
| 35 | thin | thin | /θɪn/ |
| 36 | woman | woman | /ˈwʊ.mən/ |
| 37 | man (adult male) | man | /mæn/ |
| 38 | man (human being) | person, human, man (archaic) | /ˈpɜɹ.s(ə)n/, /ˈhjuː.mən/, /mæn/ |
| 39 | child | child | /t͡ʃaɪld/ |
| 40 | wife | wife | /waɪf/ |
| 41 | husband | husband | /ˈhʌz.bənd/ |
| 42 | mother | mother | /ˈmʌðɚ/ |
| 43 | father | father | /ˈfɑðɚ/ |
| 44 | animal | animal | /ˈæn.ɪ.məl/ |
| 45 | fish | fish | /fɪʃ/ |
| 46 | bird | bird | /bɝɖ/ |
| 47 | dog | dog | /dɔɡ/ |
| 48 | louse | louse | /laʊs/ |
| 49 | snake | snake | /sneɪk/ |
| 50 | worm | worm | /wɝm/ |
| 51 | tree | tree | /tɹiː/ |
| 52 | forest | forest | /ˈfɔɹəst/ |
| 53 | stick | stick | /stɪk/ |
| 54 | fruit | fruit | /fɹuːt/ |
| 55 | seed | seed | /siːd/ |
| 56 | leaf | leaf | /liːf/ |
| 57 | root | root | /ɹuːt/ |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | bark | /bɑɹk/ |
| 59 | flower | flower | /ˈflaʊ.ɚ/ |
| 60 | grass | grass | /ɡɹæs/ |
| 61 | rope | rope | /ɹoʊp/ |
| 62 | skin | skin | /skɪn/ |
| 63 | meat | meat | /mit/ |
| 64 | blood | blood | /blʌd/ |
| 65 | bone | bone | /boʊn/ |
| 66 | fat (noun) | fat | /fæt/ |
| 67 | egg | egg | /ɛɡ, eɪɡ/ |
| 68 | horn | horn | /hɔɹn/ |
| 69 | tail | tail | /teɪl/ |
| 70 | feather | feather | /ˈfɛð.ɚ/ |
| 71 | hair | hair | /hɛɚ/ |
| 72 | head | head | /hɛd/ |
| 73 | ear | ear | /ɪəɹ/ |
| 74 | eye | eye | /aɪ/ |
| 75 | nose | nose | /noʊ̯z/ |
| 76 | mouth | mouth | /maʊθ/ |
| 77 | tooth | tooth | /tuθ/ |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | tongue | /tʌŋ/ |
| 79 | fingernail | nail, fingernail | /neɪl/, /ˈfɪŋɡɚˌneɪl/ |
| 80 | foot | foot | /fʊt/ |
| 81 | leg | leg | /lɛɡ, leɪɡ/ |
| 82 | knee | knee | /ni/ |
| 83 | hand | hand | /hænd/ |
| 84 | wing | wing | /wɪŋ/ |
| 85 | belly | belly, stomach | /ˈbɛli/, /ˈstʌmək/ |
| 86 | guts | guts, intestines | /ɡʌts/, /ɪnˈtɛstɪns/ |
| 87 | neck | neck | /nɛk/ |
| 88 | back | back | /bæk/ |
| 89 | breast | breast, chest | /bɹɛst/, /t͡ʃɛst/ |
| 90 | heart | heart | /hɑɹt/ |
| 91 | liver | liver | /ˈlɪvɚ/ |
| 92 | to drink | drink | /dɹɪŋk/ |
| 93 | to eat | eat | /it/ |
| 94 | to bite | bite | /baɪt/ |
| 95 | to suck | suck | /sʌk/ |
| 96 | to spit | spit | /spɪt/ |
| 97 | to vomit | vomit, throw up | /ˈvɑmɪt/, /θɹoʊ əp/ |
| 98 | to blow | blow | /bloʊ/ |
| 99 | to breathe | breathe | /bɹið/ |
| 100 | to laugh | laugh | /læf/ |
| 101 | to see | see | /si/ |
| 102 | to hear | hear | /hɪəɹ/ |
| 103 | to know | know | /noʊ/ |
| 104 | to think | think | /θɪŋk/ |
| 105 | to smell | smell | /smɛl/ |
| 106 | to fear | fear | /fɪɚ/ |
| 107 | to sleep | sleep | /slip/ |
| 108 | to live | live | /lɪv/ |
| 109 | to die | die | /daɪ/ |
| 110 | to kill | kill | /kɪl/ |
| 111 | to fight | fight | /faɪt/ |
| 112 | to hunt | hunt | /hʌnt/ |
| 113 | to hit | hit | /hɪt/ |
| 114 | to cut | cut | /kʌt/ |
| 115 | to split | split | /splɪt/ |
| 116 | to stab | stab | /stæb/ |
| 117 | to scratch | scratch | /skɹæt͡ʃ/ |
| 118 | to dig | dig | /dɪɡ/ |
| 119 | to swim | swim | /swɪm/ |
| 120 | to fly | fly | /flaɪ/ |
| 121 | to walk | walk | /wɔk/ |
| 122 | to come | come | /kʌm/ |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | lie | /laɪ̯/ |
| 124 | to sit | sit | /sɪt/ |
| 125 | to stand | stand | /stænd/ |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | turn | /tɜɹn/ |
| 127 | to fall | fall | /fɔl/ |
| 128 | to give | give | /ɡɪv/ |
| 129 | to hold | hold | /hoʊld/ |
| 130 | to squeeze | squeeze | /skwiːz/ |
| 131 | to rub | rub | /ɹʌb/ |
| 132 | to wash | wash | /wɑʃ/ |
| 133 | to wipe | wipe | /waɪp/ |
| 134 | to pull | pull | /pʊl/ |
| 135 | to push | push | /pʊʃ/ |
| 136 | to throw | throw | /θɹoʊ/ |
| 137 | to tie | tie | /taɪ/ |
| 138 | to sew | sew | /soʊ/ |
| 139 | to count | count | /kaʊnt/ |
| 140 | to say | say | /seɪ/ |
| 141 | to sing | sing | /sɪŋ/ |
| 142 | to play | play | /pleɪ/ |
| 143 | to float | float | /floʊt/ |
| 144 | to flow | flow | /floʊ/ |
| 145 | to freeze | freeze | /ˈfɹiːz/ |
| 146 | to swell | swell | /swɛl/ |
| 147 | sun | sun | /sʌn/ |
| 148 | moon | moon | /mun/ |
| 149 | star | star | /stɑɹ/ |
| 150 | water | water | /ˈwɔtəɹ/ |
| 151 | rain | rain | /ɹeɪn/ |
| 152 | river | river | /ˈɹɪvɚ/ |
| 153 | lake | lake | /leɪk/ |
| 154 | sea | sea | /siː/ |
| 155 | salt | salt | /sɔlt/ |
| 156 | stone | stone | /stoʊn/ |
| 157 | sand | sand | /sænd/ |
| 158 | dust | dust | /dʌst/ |
| 159 | earth | earth | /ɝθ/ |
| 160 | cloud | cloud | /klaʊd/ |
| 161 | fog | fog | /fɑɡ/ |
| 162 | sky | sky | /skaɪ/ |
| 163 | wind | wind | /wɪnd/ |
| 164 | snow | snow | /snoʊ/ |
| 165 | ice | ice | /aɪs/ |
| 166 | smoke | smoke | /smoʊk/ |
| 167 | fire | fire | /ˈfaɪ.ɚ/ |
| 168 | ash | ash | /æʃ/ |
| 169 | to burn | burn | /bɝn/ |
| 170 | road | road | /ɹoʊd/ |
| 171 | mountain | mountain | /ˈmaʊn.tən/ |
| 172 | red | red | /ɹɛd/ |
| 173 | green | green | /ɡɹin/ |
| 174 | yellow | yellow | /ˈjɛl.oʊ/ |
| 175 | white | white | /waɪt/ |
| 176 | black | black | /blæk/ |
| 177 | night | night | /naɪt/ |
| 178 | day | day | /deɪ/ |
| 179 | year | year | /jɪɹ/ |
| 180 | warm | warm | /wɔɹm/ |
| 181 | cold | cold | /koʊld/ |
| 182 | full | full | /fʊl/ |
| 183 | new | new | /nu/ |
| 184 | old | old | /oʊld/ |
| 185 | good | good | /ɡʊd/ |
| 186 | bad | bad | /bæd/ |
| 187 | rotten | rotten | /ˈɹɑtn̩/ |
| 188 | dirty | dirty | /ˈdɝti/ |
| 189 | straight | straight | /stɹeɪt/ |
| 190 | round | round | /ɹaʊnd/ |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | sharp | /ʃɑɹp/ |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | dull | /dʌl/ |
| 193 | smooth | smooth | /smuːð/ |
| 194 | wet | wet | /wɛt/ |
| 195 | dry | dry | /dɹaɪ/ |
| 196 | correct | right, correct | /ɹaɪt/, /kəˈɹɛkt/ |
| 197 | near | near | /nɪɚ/ |
| 198 | far | far | /fɑɹ/ |
| 199 | right | right | /ɹaɪt/ |
| 200 | left | left | /lɛft/ |
| 201 | at | at | /æt/ |
| 202 | in | in | /ɪn/ |
| 203 | with | with | /wɪθ, wɪð/ |
| 204 | and | and | /ænd/ |
| 205 | if | if | /ɪf/ |
| 206 | because | because, for (literary) | /biˈkɔz/, /foɹ, fɚ/ |
| 207 | name | name | /neɪm/ |