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Appendix:Proto-Japanese Swadesh list

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The following 100-item Swadesh list of Proto-Japanese is from Vovin (1994: 109–111).

The Yale Romanization is used.

List

[edit]
No. English gloss Proto-Japanese Notes
1 I *bàn[u] Problematic initial consonant, which should be *w. The *bà initial portion appears to be the same as standlone term 我 (wa, “I; we”). Meanwhile, the -n[u] ending also appears in Old Japanese term unu ("you", pejorative).
2 you (sg.) *si/*so̱-; *na Reconstruction of *si/*so̱- appears to have been a desire to link it to the other "Altaic" forms, but the attestations do not point to a pronominal meaning. Proto-Ryukyuan has *u, *o, or even *e, and *na appears to be a loan from Old Korean.
3 we *bàn[u] Problematic initial consonant, which should be *w. The *bà initial portion appears to be the same as standlone term 我 (wa, “I; we”). Meanwhile, the -n[u] ending also appears in Old Japanese term unu ("you", pejorative).
4 this *kó̱-
5 that *ká-
6 who *tá-
7 what *nà[-]ní Reconstruction of *[-]ní is based solely on Japanese evidence. Proto-Ryukyuan has *nau, sharing the same initial syllable.
8 not *-an[a]- The initial vowel may have been caused by a desire to link it with the Korean form, given that the root itself is attested in Old Japanese as n-.
9 all *múCí-nà Based primarily on Japanese evidence; the distribution of mina in Ryukyuan is limited. *mərə can also be reconstructed.
10 many *mana-Ci Based purely on Old Japanese evidence. The connection of the Old Japanese word to Proto-Ryukyuan *umage "huge" should be rejected.
11 one *pito̱
12 two *puta
13 big *ò̱pò̱-
14 long *nànkà-
15 small *tìpìsà- Based purely on Japanese evidence. *koma- can also be reconstructed.
16 woman *-mina/*míCá The medial mi is listed in some sources as cognate with the root me ("female").
17 man *bò Problematic initial consonant, which should be *w. Based purely on Japanese evidence.
18 person *pítò̱
19 fish *(d)íwó Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y, and even then it is not reconstructed in this word.
20 bird *tó̱rí
21 dog *ìnù Proto-Ryukyuan *enu implies that the first vowel should be *e, not *ì.
22 louse *sìrámí May be a compound of sira ("white") + mi (possibly "body"?). Not attested before Early Middle Japanese.
23 tree *kò̱- < *ko̱no̱r- The suggested derivation is problematic. Generally reconstructed as *kəy.
24 seed *tàná-Ci
25 leaf *pá
26 root *mò̱tò̱
27 bark (n.) *kàpà
28 skin *kàpá
29 meat *sìsì Proto-Japonic *muy can also be reconstructed.
30 blood *tí
31 bone *pone
32 grease *à(n)pùrá The nasal doubtlessly existed in Proto-Japonic, hence the later reconstruction *anpura.
33 egg *tama(n)ko Based purely on Japanese evidence. All Ryukyuan terms deriving from tamago are obviously loanwords. Only one form (*kapinko) can be reconstructed based on archaic Japanese and Yonaguni evidence, but it is possible that Yonaguni borrowed this word from Japanese.
34 horn *tùnwò
35 tail *bò̱ Problematic initial consonant, which should be *w.
36 feather *рánÉ Capital *É is reconstructed because of the lack of attested Old Japanese evidence that indicates the contrast.
37 hair *ká-Ci It is unclear whether
38 head *tumu-; *kàsìrà The *tumu root is sometimes described in other sources as an alternation of *tubu, itself a generic root form denoting something round. See 頭 for further details.
39 ear *mìmì The first vowel could be *e based on Southern Ryukyuan evidence.
40 eye *mà-i
41 nose *páná
42 mouth *kútú-Ci
43 tooth *pà
44 tongue *sìtà
45 nail *túmá-Ci
46 foot *pànkì
47 knee *pínsá; Proto-Ryukyuan *tubusin Reconstruction of a final nasal is based solely on Hateruma sï̥pusïŋ, otherwise reconstructed as *tubusi.
48 hand *tà-Ci
49 belly *pàrà Proto-Ryukyuan has *wata, with an innovative semantic shift "intestines" > "belly".
50 neck *nòmitó
51 breast *ti/*titi
52 heart *kòkòró
53 liver *kímwò
54 drink *nò̱m-
55 eat *kup-
56 bite *kàm-
57 see *mì-
58 hear *kí[-]k- Generally reconstructed as *kik- without the separator.
59 know *sír-
60 sleep *ui- Problematic. The reconstruction is based purely on Old Japanese i. *nainpuru can also be reconstructed.
61 die *sín-
62 kill *kó̱ró̱s-
63 swim *ò̱yò̱- Generally reconstructed as *əyənk-.
64 fly (v.) *tó̱np-
65 go *káywóp-; *dik- Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y, in the second reconstruction, and even then it is not reconstructed in this word. Also seen in Old Japanese as 行く (yuk-). The first reconstruction is based purely on Old Japanese evidence.
66 come *kò̱-
67 lie *ná-
68 sit *bí- Problematic initial consonant, which should be *w.
69 stand *tàt-
70 give *ata[-]pa-Ci The reconstruction is based purely on Japanese 与える (ataeru), regarded by other sources as deriving from the root *at- with a sense of "to contact, to come into contact; to fit; to be fitting, to be appropriate". Proto-Japonic *kuray can also be reconstructed.
71 say *(d)i[-]p- Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y, and even then it is not reconstructed in this word. There is no evidence to segment into i-p-.
72 sun *pí *pu can also be reconstructed as the second part of the word meaning "today" and "yesterday".
73 moon *tùkú- Generally reconstructed as *tukuy or even *tukoy, with the latter based on Ryukyuan evidence.
74 star *pósí It is not clear whether the first vowel is type A or type B.
75 water *mí Generally reconstructed as *mentu. It is possible that the two are related. Some linguists also connect it to Korean.
76 rain/sky *àmâ-Ci
77 stone *(d)ísò Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y, and even then it is not reconstructed in this word. In modern linguistics, it is generally reconstructed as *esoi.
78 sand *súná *su can also be reconstructed based on Japanese evidence. It is possible that the two are related.
79 land *tùtì Problematic. The reconstruction is based purely on Old Japanese evidence, with a single cognate in Ishigaki pointing likely to a borrowing from Japanese, which in turn borrowed it from Old Korean. Proto-Japonic *mita can be reconstructed based on Old Japanese (with irregular n), Hachijō, and Ryukyuan evidence.
80 cloud *kùmù[C]à Generally reconstructed as *kumo, also supported by Eastern Old Japanese evidence.
81 smoke *kái[-]npúrí Proto-Ryukyuan *kebusi.
82 fire *pò-Ci It is clear by Proto-Ryukyuan *pi that the word can be reconstructed as Proto-Japonic *poi.
83 ashes *pápÍ
84 burn *dák- Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y. Proto-Japonic *tak- 'to light a fire' can also be reconstructed.
85 path *mítí Listed in Japanese dictionaries as deriving from a compound of honorific prefix mi- + noun ti "road, path, way". See 道 (michi) for further details. It may also be worth noting that the term also exists in "Peninsular Japonic" toponyms.
86 mountain *dàmà Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y.
87 red *áká-
88 green *àwò; *míntórì The latter reconstruction is based purely on Japanese evidence, originally referring specifically to the color of new sprouts. The *mín- portion probably also appears in *míntu ("fresh, young, vibrant").
89 yellow *kú-Ci Generally reconstructed as *koy. Compare Early Middle Japanese 黄金 (kogane) and *kogane 'gold'.
90 white *sírà-Cu The reconstruction of *-Cu is based on the -a/-o alternation in Japanese.
91 black *kùrwò
92 night *dùCà Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y. Generally reconstructed as *yo, also supported by Eastern Old Japanese evidence.
93 warm *àta-taka- The reconstruction appears to be based on Japanese 暖か (atataka), itself listed in Japanese dictionaries as root atata- + adjective-forming suffix -ka. The root atata- also appears in the verbs atatamaru ("to warm up", intransitive) and atatameru ("to warm up", transitive). *nuku can also be reconstructed.
94 cold *sàmù- The root, exclusive to Japanese, is likely *sàm-, with the -ù- portion likely an inflectionary ending. See also modern verb 覚める (sameru), from earlier samu, where the final -u is an inflectionary ending. Ryukyuan also innovated by using *peyesi, cognate to 冷える (hieru), to freeze.
95 full *mìt-
96 new *àrà-ta- Problematic. Listed in Japanese sources as deriving from a compound of ara- ("newly appearing", from 生る (aru, “to come into being”)) + adjective-forming suffix -ta. Proto-Japonic *nipi can be reconstructed, though Proto-Ryukyuan *miwi shows an irregular *m, perhaps due to the influence of the second consonant.
97 good *dò̱- Problematic initial consonant, which should be *y. Proto-Ryukyuan also has *ye, indicating a possible reconstruction of *yəy.
98 round *márú/*máró̱ It is not clear what the true reconstruction is, as EOJ and MdJ has maru-.
99 dry *káw(V)rá-k- This reconstruction is based on the alternating stems *karak- and *kawak-.
100 name *ná

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  • Vovin, Alexander. 1994. "Long-distance Relationships, Reconstruction Methodology, and the Origins of Japanese". Diachronica 11(1): 95–114.
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