Appendix:Proto-Ainu reconstructions

The following list of reconstructed Proto-Ainu forms is from Vovin (1993: 77-154).

Abbreviations

• L: low accent
• H: high accent
• J: Japanese
• PJ: Proto-Japanese
• OJ: Old Japanese
• EMJ: Early Middle Japanese

List

Proto-Ainu	Accent pattern	Gloss	Notes	Page
*a=d[E]=hdan=		“seven”	(lit. “three-ten”)	77
*á[t/C]=dùs	H-L	“a kind of cloth”		*
*aa		“to sit” (sing.)
*áà-nÈ	HL-L	“to be thin (and round)”
*ààtyá	LLH	“father”
*ad		“to assemble”
*àgì	LL	“arrow”
*àgù	LL	“tongue”
*àgú=	LH	“to enter”
*àk	L	“younger brother”
*àm	L	“fingernail”
*àmá	LH	“to take off”		*
*àmúrnìn	LHL	“(fore)arm”
*an=, *a=		“I”	(folklore texts)
*an		“to be born”
*an		“to be, to exist, to dwell” (sing.)
*àn=	L	“to hold (in one’s arms)”
*an		“night”
*ànún	LH	“stranger, outsider”
*àpà	LL	“doorway”
*àpÉ (<*apOy ?)	LH	“fire”
*ápkàs	HL	“to walk”		*
*áptÒ	HL	“rain”
*áqù	HL	“next, neighbour”
*ár(=)tÈ (*ár=dÈ ?)	H-L	“to hang (it)”
*árkà	HL	“painful, sore, hurting”
*árkì	HL	“to come” (plur.)
*as		“to stand (up)” (sing.)
*às=í	L-H	“to close (it)”
*àsír	LH	“to be new”
*áskày	HL	“to be skillful, to be able”
*áskÈ	HL	“hand”		*
*áskì	HL	“five”	(*asik LH)
*ásnàp	HL	“paddle”
*at		“w:Ulmus laciniata” (“elm tree”)
*àtú	LH	“to vomit”
*àtùsá	LLH	“naked, bare”
*àtùy	LL	“sea”
*atya	(accent pattern is not clear)	“uncle”
*ày	L	“thorn”	(< *agi LL if related to *agi “arrow”)
*áykàp	HL	“to be unskillful, to be unable”
*áynù	HL	“person, man (in general)”	(< *a(n)=inu ?)	*
*Àm=á (< *Àm=ú)	L-H	“to put (it)” (sing.)
*Am=dE		“to put (it)” (plur.)
*Àm(=)Ám	L(-)H	“rice”
*Àp	L	“ice drift”
*ÀsÀm	LL	“bottom, depths”
*Àt	L	“string, cord”
*dáàràk	HLL	“smooth”
*dáy	H	“to die”		*
*dE=		“three”
*dÉÈ	HL	“name”
*dÉÈrà	HLL	“wind”
*dÈ=kùt	L-L	“neck”
*dÈ(=)tár	L(-)H	“white”
*dù=p	L	“ice”
*dùs	L	“skin, fur”
*È=	L	“you” (sing.)		*
*È=ák	L-H	“to shoot”
*È=kán=hÒk	L-H-L	“to go out to meet a person on his way”
*È(=)qÉn (*È(=)gÉn ?)	L(-)H	“to be sharp-pointed”
*È=rùsá	L-LH	“to lend, to loan”
*È=sì(=)kár(=)ùn	L-L(-)H(-)L	“to recall (it), to remember (it), to recollect (it)”
*È=sììná	L-LLH	“to conceal, to keep secret”
*E=sOO		“to borrow”
*È=tày=	L-L	“to pull”		*
*È(=)tín(=)kÈ	LHL	“tortoise”
*È=tún	L-H	“to borrow”
*EE		“to eat (it)”
*Eg		“to come” (sing.)
*Èkàsí (*Èkàgí/*Èkàhí ?)	LLH	“old man, grandfather”
*ÉmkÒ	HL	“half”
*Èmùs	LL	“sword”
*Èpá	LH	“to arrive, to reach”
*Èpìr[V̀]	LL[L]	“knife”
*Èpúy	LH	“sprout, bud, flower”
*ÈrÈkús (*èrèkús ?)	LLH	“cod fish”		*
*Érúm	HH	“mouse”
*Èsàmán	LLH	“otter”
*Ésnà	HL	“sneeze”
*Ètì=	LL	“you” (plur.)
*ÈtÒp	LL	“hair”
*Ètù	LL	“nose”
*ga=ita		“not enough, lacking”
*gáá(=)pÒ	HH(-)L	“mother”	(*=pO may be a suffix)
*gáàtìr	HLL	“to fall (down)”		*
*gán=kÈ	H-L	“to be near”
*gÁnkù	HL	“navel”
*gàqù	LL	“voice”
*gár=kè	H-L	“left”
*=gáytà	HL	“to make a mistake”
*gÉÈsÈ	HLL	“to breathe”
*gÈm=án=tà (*hÈmántà ?)	L-H-L	“what”
*gEm=pa=ra		“when”
*gEm=pak=pE		“how many”
*gik/*gek		“to be born”		*
*gík(=)nù (*sík(=)nù/*hík(=)nù ?)	H-L	“to be alive, to live”
*gìk(=)úp (*sìk(=)úp/*hìk(=)úp ?)	L-H	“to grow up”
*gìtá	LH	“dog”	(< *LL ? cf. accent in KK)
*gOk		“to buy”
*gOm		“knot, joint (of bamboo)”
*gÒn	L	“belly, stomach”
*gOOr=nE		“to be loose”
*góp=nÈ	H-L	“to be narrow”
*gÒqínù	LHL	“marten”		*
*gÓr(=)kà	H(-)L	“to be inverted, to be upside down”
*gÓr(=)kÈqù	H(=)LL	“wolf”
*gÓr=sÈ	H-L	“to rot, to decay, rotten”
*gÓs(=)kì=	H(-)L	“before, previous”
*gOt		“twenty”
*gÓt=kÈ	H-L	“to lie down”
*gÓtkù	HL	“to stoop”
*gú	H	“to be living (of a plant)”
*gùm	L	“sound, noise”
*gún(=)pÈ	H(-)L	“whale”		*
*gun=pa		“to chop (it), to mince (it)”
*gùnÀr=	LL	“to seek (it), to look for”
*gú[n]nà	HL	“who”
*gùp	L	“to swell, swelling”
*gúr	H	“mountain, hill”
*gúrá	HH	“smell”
*gúrtì	HL	“old woman, grandmother”
*gúskÒ	HL	“to be old”
*guu		“to be raw, to be fresh”
•gúùrÈ	HLL	“red”
*gùy (? *hùy)	L	“cheek of the fish”		*
*hàpúr	LH	“to be weak, to be soft”
*hàrám	LH	“lizard”
*hàyÓk=pÈ	LH-L	“armour”
*hdák=kà	HL	“water”
*hdán=	H	“ten”
*hdàtàrá	LLH	“stone, cliff”
*hdEn		“to be bad”
*hdOO		“span of the thumb and first finger”
*hÈkàtí	LLH	“child”
*h[È/è]má(=)kà (*g[È/è]má(=)kà ?)	LH(-)L	“to end”		*
*hÈmÓy	LH	“trout”
*hÈpÉr	LH	“bear cub”
*hÈrÒkí	LLH	“herring”
*hO		“pubic area” (?)
*hÒ(=)rip=	L(-)H/L(-)L (?)	“to dance”
*hÒ(=)rÓp[=sÈ]	LH[-L]	“to sip (loudly)”
*hÒ=kús	L-H	“to fall”
*hÒ=pùn=í	L-L-H	“to fly, to get up” (sing.)
*hÒ=pún=pà	L-H-L	“to fly, to get up” (plur.)
*hÒ=rá=k	L-H	“to fall”	(from hO= + ra “down, under” + =k)
*hÒ=sìp= (*hÒ=gìp=/*hÒ=hìp= ?)	L-L	“to come/go home”		*
*hÒ=yùp=	L-L	“to run”
*hÒkù	LL	“husband”
*hÒmá (*gÒmá ?)	LH	“spawn”
*hÒmár	LH	“to be vague, to be faint”
*hÒtùy=	LL	“to call, to shout”
*hrÀ=	L	“leaf”
*hrúp	H	“(white) fir, coniferous tree”		*
*hur		“bamboo grass”
*Hàm	L	“claw”
*Háspà	HL	“deaf”
*HÉ(=)sÈ	HL	“to consent to, to comply with”
*HÓn=tàrÒ (*Hón=tàrò ?)	H-LL	“barrel”	(< J taru “barrel”)
*Húpsì (*Húpgì/*Húphì ?)	HL	“lacquer”	(? < J urusi “lacquer”)
*Húùràr	HLL	“fog”
*i=Ak(=)a		“to show, to point to”
*ì=Àk=ú	L-L-H	“to crash, to smash”
*ì=As=	L	“to tear (it), to split (it)”		*
*ì=ÉÈ	L-HL	“to say (it)”
*ì=kásmà	L-HL	“to be in excess, to remain, to be left over”
*ì=kÒn=í	L-L-H	“to fall (seriously) ill”
*í=n[ù]=kàr	H-(L)-L	“to be seen”
*ì=nùú	L-LH	“to be heard”
*ì=Òn=í	L-L-H	“to draw (it) back, to withdraw”
*ì=ùp=	L-L	“to tighten (it)”
*ii=hdan=		“six”	(lit “four-ten”)	*
*íì=nÈ=	HL-L	“four”
*ihdagu		“sulphur”
*íhkà	HL	“to steal”
*ík	H	“waist”
*ik		“hundred”
*ìk	L	“joint (of bamboo)”
*ík=màqù=rè	H-LL-L	“belch”
*ìkús(=)pÈ	LH(-)L	“pillar”
*ìmà(=)k	L(-)L	“tooth”
*ìmÈrú	LLH	“lightning”
*ìmÓ(=)k	LH	“earthworm”		*
*ìmÒká	LLH	“present, gift”
*ìn[à]=	L[L]	“which”
*inaqu		“to perform inau ritual”
*ìnón(=)pÈ	LH(-)L	“frame of a fireplace”
*ìpÒr (*ìpÒd ?)	LL	“color”
*ír=nÈ	H-L	“many (of people)”
*ìrÓr=nÈ (*ìrÓt=nÈ ?)	LH-L	“to be thick (and flat)”
*ìqÉÈ	LHL	“pus”
*ìs	L	“bird's tail”
*ìsÈpÓ	LLH	“hare”
*ìtá	LH	“board”	(< J ita “board”)
*ìtà(=)k	LL	“language, word, to speak, to talk”		*
*ìtánkì	LHL	“wooden bowl”
*ityaniqu		“trout”
*kà	L	“on, above”	(J ue)
*káà	HL	“cord, thread, yarn”
*kaa		“trap”
*káání	HHH	“metal”	(< OJ kane HH)
*kààrì=p	LLL	“wheel, ring, hoop”
*káásì=qù	HHL-L	“to help”
*kàkká	LH	“vulva”		*
*kàm	L	“meat”
*kàmúy	LH	“god”	(< OJ kamiy or PJ *kamu=i “god”)
*kánkàn	HL	“intestines”
*kántÒ	HL	“heaven, sky”
*kÀp	L	“skin, fur”	(? < OJ kaFa or PJ *kapa)
*kàp=ár	L-H	“to be thin (and flat)”
*kàpá(=)p	LH	“bat”
*kàpíqù	LHL	“seagull”
*kaqu=kaqu		“sleet, hail”
*kar (< *kii=yar ?)		“to make”
*kar		“to peel (it)”		*
*kar		“to pick, to nip, to pluck”
*kàr=	L	“to roll over, to turn around”
*kárkù	HL	“nephew”
*kàrús	LH	“mushroom”
*kàsúp	LH	“ladle”
*kày	L	“to break (of a long thing)”	(*kay=i L-H “to break a long thing”)
*kay		“to carry piggyback”
*kàyá	LH	“sail”
*kEE		“oil (as food), fat”		*
*kÉÈ[qù]	HL[L]	“to shave (it), to whittle (it), to plane (it)”
*kÉÈrà	HLL	“taste”
*kÈm	L	“blood”
*kEm		“to lick”
*kèm	L	“needle”
*kÈmà	LL	“foot, leg”
*kÈn (*kèn ?)	L	“sprout, bud”
*kEqu (*kequ ?)		“uncle, elder male relative”
*kEqu		“bone”
*kèr	L	“footwear”
*kÈ=s	L	“end”		*
*kEs=		“every”
*kÈsùp (*kèsùp ?)	LL	“heel”
*kÈtá	LH	“star”
*ki		“louse”
*ki		“reed”
*kii		“to do”
*kììkí	LLH	“to scratch (it)”	(< *kii=kii ?)
*kik		“to hit, to beat”		*
*kìkí(=)r	LH	“worm, insect, bug”
*kim		“mountain”
*kìná	LH	“(edible) grass”
*kìp=ùtúr	L-LH	“forehead”
*kìr	L	“marrow”
*kìrá	LH	“to run away, to flee”
*kì(=)ràqú	LLH	“horn”
*kìrày	LL	“comb”
*kìrÓr (*kìròr ?)	LH (LL ?)	“strength”
*kírp̀u	HL	“fat, grease”
*kìsÀr	LL	“ear”		*
*kísmà	HL	“to seize, to catch”
*kìtáy	LH	“roof”
*kìtáy	LH	“summit, peak”
*kï̀r=ú	L-H	“to turn (it) toward”
*kÒ=kÒ	L-L	“son-in-law, elder sister's husband”
*kÓ(=)s	H	“daughter-in-law, elder brother's wife”
*kÒ=r	L	“to have”		*
*kÒ[Ò]=C=dÉ	L[L]-H	“to give”	(lit. “to make have”)
*kÓkkà	HL	“knee”
*kOm (*kom ?)		“oak”
*kOmta (*komta ?)		“elbow”
*kÓn=sùm	HL	“foam, bubble”
*kÓntì	HL	“hat”
*kÓs=nÈ	H-L	“to be light (not heavy)”
*kÒ=sún=kÈ	L-H-L	“to deceive”
*kÒt	L	“traces, marks”
*kOt=		“front, before”		*
*kÒtàn	LL	“village, country”
*kOy		“wave”
*kòy	L	“urine”
*kÓy(=)kì	H(-)L	“to tease, to torment, to scold, to hunt”
*kö̀t=	L	“to tie (it) to, to fasten (it) to”
*kù=	L	“I”
*kùhdá	LH	“cane, walking stick”
*kùmá	LH	“(bamboo) pole”		*
*kùmì	LL	“mold”
*kùnkí	LH	“nail”	(< J kugi “nail”)
*kúp	H	“shoulder”
*kùpá	LH	“to bite”
*kùr	L	“shadow”
*kur		“person, man (in general)”
*kúr=	H	“black”	(? < OJ kurwo= “black”)
*kúrkì	HL	“gills”
*kus		“to pass, to go through”
*kùt	L	“waistband, belt”		*
*kùtá	LH	“to spill (it)”
*kùtyán	LH	“female bear”
*kùú	LH	“bow”
*kuu		“to drink (it)”
*kuy		“to chew”
*kúy(=)tÒ=p	HL	“wild goose”
*má=k	H	“inside”
*maa		“to roast”
*maa		“to swim”		*
*màkìrí	LLH	“knife”
*máqù=s=Òk	HL-L	“yawn”
*màt	L	“woman, wife”
*màtà	LL	“winter”
*mE(=)k/*mi(=)k		“to bark”
*mEE=		“to be cold”
*më̀s=	L	“to pick, to nip, to pluck”
*më̀s=	L	“to peel (it)”
*mii		“to put on clothes”		*
*míìnà	HLL	“to laugh”
*mìm	L	“meat (of fish)”
*mit		“grandchild”
*mítì	HL	“father”
*mÒ	L (?)	“world, land, island, country” (?)
*mÒ	L	“sleep”
*mÒ(=)yúk	L(-)H	“tanuki, raccoon dog”
*mOm		“to flow”
*mOn (*mon ?)		“hand”
*mÓn(=)rÈ	H(-)L	“to be late (at night), to come late, to be slow”		*
*mÒs	L	“a fly”
*mÓsmà	HL	“other (than), besides, (anything) else”
*mOy (*moy ?)		“eddy, whirlpool”
*mOy		“inlet, bay”
*mOy=		“to move, to be in motion”
*mÒyÓ	LH	“few, little”
*m[r]Ák=	H	“to open (it)”
*mùkár	LH	“axe”		*
*múkkù	HL	“flute, pipe”
*mun		“(inedible) grass”
*mun		“trash, rubbish”
*mùnín	LH	“to rot, to decay, rotten”
*muy		“winnow”	(< PJ *mui)
*nà(=)ní	L(-)H	“at once, immediately”
*nÀn	L	“face”
*nàqá	LH	“still”
*nàtá	LH	“hatchet”	(< J nata “hatchet”)	*
*nay		“stream, river”
*nÈÉ=	LH	“who, what”
*nÉskÒ	HL	“walnut tree”
*nÈtÓ	LH	“calm, lull”
*nii		“to sip”
*nii		“tooth”
*nii		“tree”
*níì(=)nùm	HL(-)L	“(wal)nut”	(lit. “tree's fruit” ?)
*níìsù	HLL	“mortar, handmill”
*nìmàrá	LLH	“half, part (of something)”		*
*nin		“to decrease, to diminish”
*nìn=	L	“to drag”
*nís	H	“sky, cloud”
*nìs=	L	“to be strong, to be hard”
*nìs=	L	“to draw (water), to ladle, to dip”
*nìsàp	LL	“shin”
*nìs(=)át	L(-)H	“dawn”
*níspà	HL	“rich man”		*
*nìt	L	“handle”
*nï̀n=ú	L-H	“to sew”
*nÒk	L	“testicles, egg”
*nÒkà	LL	“picture, drawing, form, shape”
*nÒkÓ	LH	“saw”	(< J noko=giri “saw”)
*nÒn	L	“saliva”
*nÒná	LH	“sea urchin, sea chestnut”
*nOOti(=)qu		“star”
*nÓqì=pÈ	HLL	“brain”
*nÓrnÒ	HL	“flower”		*
*nOrnO/*narna		“mother”
*nÓs=kì	H-L	“middle, center”
*nÓs=pà	H-L	“to pursue, to chase”
*nÓt	H	“chin, jaw”
*nÒtÁk	LH	“cutting edge”
*nOy=		“temple”
*nö́m(=)í	H(-)H	“to hold a festival, to perform memorial duties”
*nö̀y=	L	“to twist”		*
*nu		“to ask”
nù=kár	L-H	“to see, to look at”
*nùm	L	“fruit, berry, to bear fruit”
*nùm	L	“grain, granule, ball”
*nùm=	L	“to squeeze”
*núm=kÈ	H-L	“to choose (it), to select (it)”
*nùmà	LL	“hair”
*nún=pÈ	H-L	“paste, glue”	(? < Japanese nibe "glue made from swim bladders of fish, isinglass")
*nup		“field”		*
*núp(=)kì	H(-)L	“to get muddy”
*nùpÈk	LL	“light”
*nùpùrí	LLH	“mountain”	(< ? OJ no̱bo̱r=i HH-H)
*núù	HL	“eye”
*nuu		“to hear, to listen”
*núùmàn	HLL	“yesterday”
*núy=kàr	H-L	“to comb”
*nuyna (< *nu=ina ?)		“to hide (it), to conceal (it)”
*nǜy=	L	“to carve (it)”		*
*nǜy=	L	“to sweep”
*òpás	LH	“snow”
*ópsÓr	HH	“bosom”
*Ò(=)mán=dÈ	L-H-L	“to present, to make a present”
*Ò=kÈ=dÉ	L-L-H	“to end”
*Ò=kÈqú=	L-LH	“to expel, to drive out, to throw out”
*Ò=sùr=á	L-L-H	“to throw away”
*Ògá	LH	“to be empty”		*
*Ògák	LH	“to be shallow”
*Ògàqú	LLH	“soup, broth”
*ÒgÓÒ	LHL	“to be deep”
*Ók	H	“nape, the back of the neck”
*Òkáy	LH	“to be, to exist, to dwell” (plur.)
*Ókkày(Ò)	HL(L)	“man, male”
*Òm	L	“thigh”
*Óm=kÈ	HL	“to cough”
*Òmá(=)p	LH	“to love, to like”		*
*Òmán	LH	“to go” (sing.)
*ÒmónpÈ	LHL	“pants”	(J o=monpe “(women's) skirt pantaloons”)
*Òná (*òná ?)	LH	“father”
*Ónkàmì	HLL	“to worship”	(< NJ oNgamï “to worship”)
*Ónrà	HL	“to forget (it)”
*OO		“to ride (it)”
*Òp	L	“spear”
*Òpít(=)tà/*Òpír=tà	LH-L	“all”
*Òr	L	“inside”	(J naka)
*Ór=nÈ	H-L	“to be old (of age)”
*Ós=kÈ	H-L	“to knit, to weave”		*
*Ósmà=k	HL	“back, behind”
*ÒsÒr	LL	“buttocks”
*Ót=kÈ	H-L	“to poke (it)”
*Òtá	LH	“sand”
*Òyá=	LH	“after, next”
*Òyáqù	LHL	“snake”
*páà	HL	“steam, smoke”		*
*pà	L	“head”
*páà	HL	“year, age”
*pá[a]=qìkàr	HLL	“spring”
*paa		“to find (it)”
*páàkàrì	HLLL	“to measure (it), to weigh (it)”	(< MJ Fakar-i LL-L)
*paar=aC=sE		“to fly”
*páàsÈ	HLL	“to be heavy”
*pÁr=	H	“to fan”
*pàrà=kí	LL-H	“tick”		*
*pÀs	L	“charcoal, cinders”
*pás(=)kùr	H(-)L	“crow”
*pà[s]ná	LH	“dust, dirt”
*pàsùy	LL	“chopsticks”	(< PJ *pasui)
*pàtÉk (*pàték ?)	LH	“only”
*pày=í	L-H	“to go” (plur.)
*pÉ	H	“sap, water”
*pÉqùrÈ	HLL	“to be young”
*pÉkÈr	HL	“to be bright, to be light”
*pÈr=	L	“to break or split (it) in two or pieces”
*pÈrá	LH	“(rice) paddle”	(< EMJ Fera “spatula, (rice) paddle, scoop”)
*pÈráy	LH	“to fish with a line” (?)
*pEt		“river”
*=pEt		“finger”
*pë̀t=ú	L-H	“to cut, to split”
*pii		“seed”
*píìr=nÈ	HL-L	“male”
*pìr	L	“wound”
*pír(=)kà	H(-)L	“to be good”
*pìrÀs(=)á	LL(-)H	“to spread (it) out”		*
*pís	H	“seashore”
*pís=kì (< *pís=kìi ?)	H-L	“to count”
*pìsàkú	LLH	“dipper”	(< MJ Fisaku “ladle”)
*pìsÉ	LH	“stomach”
*pìsí	LH	“to ask”
*pìtá	LH	“to untie (it)”
*=pìtǘy=	LH	“to push”
*pï̀r=	L	“to wipe”
*pÒk	L	“vulva”
*pOn		“to be small”		*
*pònÈ	LL	“bone”	(< PJ *pone LL “bone”)
*pÓÒ	HL	“son, child”
*pÓp	H	“sweat”
*pOp		“to boil, to grow hot”
*pOqina		“stone”
*pÒqÓn	LH	“four” (?)
*pÒrÓ	LH	“to be big”
*pÓrù	HL	“cave”	(< ? MJ Fora HH)
*práá	HH	“edge”
*práák	HH	“to teach, to inform”
*pran		“light, thin, insipid (colour, taste)”		*
*prÀA=	L	“mouth”
*pras		“to run”
*prÒ=k	L	“under, beneath, below”	(J sita)
*pùkùrú	LLH	“bag”	(< OJ pukurwo “bag”)
*púnkàr	HL	“vine”
*púrí	HH	“custom”	(< OJ Furi “custom”)
*pùtá	LH	“cover, lid”	(< OJ Futa “lid”)	*
*púù	HL	“storehouse”
*pùy	L	“hole”
*pùyár/*pùqár	LH	“window”
*rá (*dá ?)	H	“liver”
*rá	H	“down”	(J sita=no kata)
*ra= (*da= ?)		“to get clear”
*ráà(=)rà[a]y= (*dáàrà[a]y=/*dáà(=)dà[a]y ?)	HLL	“to rub gently, to soothe”
*ráànù= (*dáànù= ?)	HLL	“to love, to like”		*
*rak		“to smell”
*rákkÒ (*dákkÒ ?)	HL	“sea otter”
*rÀm	L	“soul, heart, mind”
*ram		“to be low”
*rÁm=rÀm	H-L	“scales”
*ránmà (*dánmà ?)	HL	“always, usually”
*rÀr	L	“eyebrow”
*ràt (? *dàt)	L	“phlegm”
*ràyòntí	LLH	“rainbow”
*rEk		“to sing, to cry (of a bird)”		*
*rE=n (*dE=n ?)		“to sink”
*rÉp (*dÉp ?)	H	“offshore”
*rÈqù= (*dÈqù= ?)	LL	“to bend (it)”
*rÉqùs(=)ì (*dÉqù[g/h](=)ì ?)	HL(-)L	“to stay (overnight)”
*rÈs= (*dÈs= ?)	L	“to bring up, to rear”
*rEy= (*dEy= ?)	LH	“to creep, to crawl”
*rí (*di ?)	H	“to skin, to strip”
*rìk(=)án (*dìk(=)án ?)	LH	“to be damp, to get damp”
*rìká (*dìká ?)	LH	“whale('s meat)”		*
*rím=sÈ (*dím=sÈ ?)	H-L	“to dance”
*rir (*dir ?)		“wave”
*ris= (*dis= ?)		“to pick, to nip, to pluck”
*=rit		“root”
*rOk (*dOk ?)		“to sit” (plur.)
*rÓr=nù (*dÓr=nò/*rÓr=nò/*dÓr=nù ?)	H-L	“to kill” (plur.)
*rÓs=kì	HL	“to stand (up)” (plur.)
*rù (*dù ?)	L	“traces, marks”
*rùp	L	“shoal”	(*dup ?)
*rùqÉ/*rùgÉ (*duqE/*dugE ?)	LH	“to be thick (and round)”		*
*rùr (*dùr ?)	L	“soup, broth”
*rur (*dur ?)		“the tide”
*rúr=nù (*dúr=nù ?)	H-L	“to be salty”
*rúrà (*dúrà ?)	HL	“to see off”
*rús(=)kà (*dús(=)kà ?)	H(-)L	“to get angry”
*ruu (*duu ?)		“to melt”
*rúùrà (*dúùrà ?)	HLL	“to carry”
*ruy (*duy ?)		“whetstone”
*ruy=ruy= (*duy=duy= ?)	H	“to rub gently, to soothe”
*rúykà/*réqùkà (*dúykà/*déqùkà ?)	HL/HLL	“bridge”
*rǜk= (*dǜk= ?)	L	“to gulp down”		*
*sá	H	“elder sister”
*sá	H	“head”
*sa=		“to be non-existent”
*sa=		“to come/go out”	(J deru)
*sàk	L	“summer”
*sàk=ì	L-L	“trout”
*sÀm	L	“side”		*
*sán=pÈ	H-L	“heart” (only as anatomical organ)
*sÀr	L	“tail”
*sar		“field of reeds”
*sàrá	LH	“to appear, to come out”
*sAs		“sea-tangle, kelp”
*sát	H	“to dry, to be dry”
*sày	L	“flock”
*sÉ́	H	“throat”
*sEE		“to carry on the back”
*sÉÈsÈk	HLL	“to grow hot, to be hot”
*sEm		“closet”		*
*sÉnpìr	HL	“behind, shade”
*sEp		“to be broad”
*sÈt	L	“bed”
*sÈt	L	“nest”
*sÈtùr	LL	“back”
*sÈy	L	“shell(fish)”
*sí(=)yùk (*gí(=)yùk/*hí(=)yùk ?)	H(-)L	“male bear”
*sì=nÉ= (*gì=nÉ=/*hì=nÉ= ?)	LH	“one”
*si=nE=pE=hdan=		“nine”	(lit. “one-ten”)
*sii (*gii ?)		“dung, fecal matter”	(cf. o=so=ma “to void feces”)	*
*síì (*gíì/*híì ?)	HL	“right”
*sìì=n[é/í] (*gìì=n[é/í]/*hìì=n[é/í] ?)	LL-H	“to rest”
*síì=sÀm (*gíì=sàm/*híì=sàm ?)	HLL	“foreigner”	(< sii “self” + sAm “side” ?)
*sik (*gik/*hik ?)		“to be full”
*sìk (*gìk/*hìk ?)	L	“eye”
*sík(=)kÈqù	H(-)LL	“corner, edge, nook”
*sìkáy/*tìkáy	LH	“wooden nail”
*sín=kì (*gín=kì/*hín=kì ?)	H-L	“to get tired”		*
*sinma/*siima		“tomorrow”
*sìnÓt (*gìnÓt/*hìnÓt ?)	LH	“game, to play”
*sí(=)ntÒkÒ	H(-)LL	“container”
*sì(=)pÓp	L(-)H	“box, case”	(*gipOp/*hipOp ?)
*síppÒ	HL	“salt”	(< OJ sipo “salt”)
*sìpùyá (*gìpùyá/*hìpùyá ?)	LLH	“smoke”
*siqu		“to be bitter”
*síqùnìn (*gíqùnìn/*híqùnìn ?)	HLL	“blue, green”
*sir (*gir/*hir ?)		“weather”
*sir (*gir/*hir ?)		“world, land, island, country”		*
*sìráqù (*gìráqù/*hìráqù ?)	LHL	“horsefly, gadfly”
*sìrár	LH (*girar/*hirar ?)	“rock”
*sírmà (*gírmà/*hírmà ?)	HL	“dust, dirt”
*sírnày (*gírnày/*hírnày ?)	HL	“to change”
*sírtÒk (*gírtÒk/*hírtÒk ?)	HL	“elbow”
*sì(=)táy=kì	L(-)H-L	“to weave”
*sìtÒmá	LLH	“to be afraid of”	(*gitOma/*hitOma ?)
*sï̀n(=)á (*gï̀n(=)á/*hï̀n(=)á ?)	L(-)H	“to bind (it), to tie (it) up”
*sḯr=ú (*gír=ú/*hír=ú ?)	H-H (?)	“to rub”
*sO		“waterfall”		*
*sÓk(=)kàr	H(-)L	“mat, rug”
*sÓn=nÒ	H-L	“indeed, really, truly”
*sÓnkÒ	HL	“news, information”
*sÒs=	L	“to tear (it), to split (it)”
*sOy		“outside”	(J soto)
*sÒyá	LH	“bee, wasp”
*sù(=)gÈ (*sù(=)qÉ ?)	L(-)H	“to cook, to boil”
*sù(=)kÉ	L(-)H	“to cook, to prepare”
*sù(=)sú	L(-)H	“willow”
*sùm	L	“oil (as food)”		*
*sum		“to droop, to wither”
*sùmá	LH	“stone”
*sùmárì	LHL	“fox”
*sún(=)kÈ	HL	“lie, to tell a lie”
*sunE	(accent is not clear)	“light, torch”
*súnkù	HL	“silver fir”
*sùrá	LH	“to release, to let go”
*súrkù	HL	“poison”
*suu		“pan”
*sùy	L	“hole”
*sǜy=í	L-H	“to swing” (intr.), “to sway”
*sǘy=í	H-H	“to shake, to wave”		*
*tà=	L	“now”
*tà=	L	“this”
*tÀk	L	“lump, clod”
*tak		“to invite”
*tak		“to be short”
*tàkár	LH	“dream”
*tántÒ	HL	“today”	(< *ta “this” + an “to be” + tOO “day”)
*tàp	L	“shoulder, upper arm”
*tár=nÈ	H-L	“to be long”		*
*tàráp	LH	“dream”
*tas[p]a=dE	LL	“to change (it), to exchange (it)”
*tàsúm	LH	“to fall ill, to get sick”
*táy=kì	HL	“flea”
*tÈ(=)k	L	“hand, arm”
*tÉÈrE ̀	HLL	“to wait for”
*tEm		“fathom”
*tÈpà	LL	“loincloth”
*tÉr=kÈ	HL	“to jump”
*tEy=nE		“to get wet”		*
*tì=	L	“bird”
*tì=	L	“we”
*tíì	HL	“to wither”
*tìí	LH	“penis”
*tii		“ripe, to grow ripe”
*tii		“to be cooked, to be done, to be roasted”
*tìkír	LH (*ti=kir ?)	“foot, leg”
*tìkù=	LL	“tree”
*tín	H	“waist”
*tinita	LLH	“dream”
*tínkì	HL	“skirt, bottom”
*tìp	L	“canoe”		*
*tiqa=tiqa		“fox”
*tìqàr=	LL	“to scatter”
*tíqàsì (*tíqàgì/*tíqàhì ?)	HLL	“fence”
*tìqÈp	LL	“fish”
*tìqù	LL	“tide”
*tiqu		“to stab (it), to pierce (it)”
*tiqu(=)p		“the sun, the moon, month”
*tis		“to cry, to weep”
*tìsÉ	LH	“house”
*tÒ=	L	“that”		*
*tÓkkÒnì	HLL	“snake”
*tÓkkùrì	HLL	“jug, bottle”	(< J tokkuri “bottle”, EMJ tokuri(go) “sake bottle”)
*tÒmá	LH	“sweet potato, taro”
*tÓn(=)rÈ	H(-)L	“to get wet”
*tÓntÒ	HL	“processed leather”
*tOO		“day”
*tÓÓ[C]	HH	“breasts (of woman)”
*tOO		“lake”
*tÓÒpÈn	HLL	“sweet”
*tOp		“bamboo”
*tÒpà	LL	“flock, herd”
*tOy		“earth, soil, ground, land”		*
*tóp(=)sÈ	H(-)L	“to spit”
*trÀp	L	“feather”
*trÈk	L	“beard”
*tri[i]=k		“up(per part)”	(J ue=no kata)
*trii		“to be high”
*truu		“road”
*tu		“ridge (of a mountain), summit”
*tuu=		“two”
*tu=pE=hdan=		“eight”	(lit. “two-ten”)	*
*túk	H	“to bud, to put forth buds or shoots”
*=tùk=	L	“to come out, to grow”	(probably related to *tuk H)
*tùkán	LH	“to shoot”
*tùkár	LH	“seal”
*tùm	L	“strength”
*tùmÀm	LL	“trunk (of the body), waist”
*tùmí	LH	“battle, war”
*túnsìr	HL	“grave”
*túntù	HL	“pillar, stake”
*tup		“to move (to another place)”		*
*tùr	L	“dirt”
*tur=		“oak”
*tùrá	LH	“to be accompanied by, to bring some-body”
*tùrÉp	LH	“sweet potato”
*turi	(accent pattern is not clear)	“pole (for boats)”
*tùs	L	“rope”
*tùsá	LH	“to recover, to get cured”
*tùsà	LL	“sleeve”
*tùsù	LL	“shaman, shamanism”
*túùkì	HLL	“sake cup”	(< OJ tukyi “sake cup”)
*túùnàs	HLL	“to be early, to be quick”
*tùùtí	LLH	“large wooden hammer”	(< MJ tuti “hammer”)	*
*tùy	L	“belly, intestines”
*túymà	HL	“to be far”
*tǘr=	H	“to lengthen, to extend”
*tǜy	L	“to be cut”	(*tüy=i L-H)
*=tya[qu]		“birthmark, mole”
*tyùk	L	“fall”
*tyOrtya		“to shoot (from the bow), to hit (the mark)”
*ù=pák=dÈ	L-H-L	“to compare”		*
*=[ù]g	L	“place, spot”
*ug		“to take, to receive” (sing.)
*úg=ìnà	H-LL	“to take, to receive” (plur.)
*ùgúy	LH	“to burn”
*ùkú	LH	“to blow”
*ùnár(=)pÈ	LH(-)L	“aunt”
*úntì	HL	“fire”
*ùnú	LH	“mother”
*ùpár	LH	“soot”
*uqeeti (*ugeeti ?)		“chilblains”
*ùr	L	“fur coat”		*
*ùráy	LH	“stake”
*ùrÈ	LL	“foot”
*us		“to go out, to die out (of a fire)”
*us		“to put on (trousers or shoes)”
*ùs(=)í (*ùg(=)í/*ùh(=)í ?)	L(-)H	“to smear (it), to daub (it)”
*úsÈy	HL	“hot water”
*ùsís (*ùgís/*ùhís ?)	LH	“hoof”
*ússì=qù (*úCgì=qù/*úChì=qù ?)	HLL	“servant”
*ùt	L	“rib”
*ùtáp=kÈ	LH-L	“to patch (up)”		*
*ùtùr	LL	“between, interval, space”
*úù[y]nà	HLL	“ash, ashes”
*=ǜr=	L	“to dig (it)”
*yá	H	“dry land, the shore”
*ya(=)ki	(accent pattern is not clear)	“cicada”
*yaa		“net”
*yam		“chestnut”
*yár(=)pÈ	H(-)L	“diaper”		*
*yÓmkòr	HL	“hiccup”
*yÓspÈ (*yóspè/*yÓspè/*yóspÈ ?)	HL	“stomach”
*yuk		“reindeer”
*yúk(=)kì	H(-)L	“tick”
*yúp	H	“elder brother”
*yúùkàr	HLL	“epic song”		154

See also

• Appendix:Paleosiberian Swadesh lists
• Appendix:Proto-Japanese Swadesh list
• Appendix:Proto-Nivkh reconstructions

References

• Vovin, Alexander. 1993. A Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu. Leiden: Brill.