Appendix:Japanese Swadesh list (extended)
This is a Swadesh list of words in Japanese, compared with definitions in English.
Conventions used
[edit]- Only 和語 (wago, “native Japanese vocabulary”) words were considered for this list. 漢語 (kango, “Chinese-derived vocabulary”) and other 外来語 (gairaigo, “foreign borrowings”) have been excluded.
- Japanese words sometimes function differently than the grammatical categories applied to them. For instance, "not" in Japanese is not a discrete word, but rather a verbal suffix. Such differences are explained in the Usage and Notes columns.
- The kanji listed include archaic usage. Do not attempt to blindly use these kanji and expect to be understood.
- Multiple kanji for a single word are separated by a nakaguro, as in 「其処・其所・其」 for 「そこ」 (soko).
- Kanji for different words in a single entry row are separated by a comma, as in 「彼, 彼の」 for 「あれ,あの」 (are, ano, “that (pronoun), that (determiner)”).
- In kanji lists for entry rows with multiple synonyms, nonexistent kanji are indicated by empty brackets, as in 「皆, 全て, [[]], [[]]」 for 「みんな, すべて, すっかり, あらゆる」 (minna, subete, sukkari, arayuru, “every / everyone, all / entirely, completely, each and every”).
- Japanese "pronouns" are considered by some linguists to be more "referential nouns" than strict pronouns. English pronouns allow no modification -- for instance, you cannot grammatically say "the tall he", and must instead use a relative clause, such as "he that is tall". In contrast, Japanese "pronouns" can be directly modified, much like regular nouns -- it is grammatical to say 「背の高い彼」 (se no takai kare, “the tall he”). Furthermore, many Japanese "pronouns" have historically evolved from common nouns, and as such have fundamentally different etymologies from the pronouns utilized in the Indo-European languages for which the Swadesh list was initially developed. Swadesh was attempting to show glottochronological correlations between words from different languages, but the wildly different etymologies of these Japanese "pronouns" defy such correlation. Certain pronoun entries below are therefore left blank.
The list
[edit]№ | English | POS | Main Cat. | Hiragana | Kanji | Usage | Note |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | I | pronoun | わたし | 私 | Only first-person pronoun in Japanese that does not derive from a common noun -- 私 originally meant "private" (i.e. "not public"), while 僕 meant "servant". | ||
2 | thou (singular) |
pronoun | なんじ | 汝 | Similar to English pronoun "thou", used only in old-fashioned contexts. | ||
3 | he | pronoun | かれ | 彼 | Originally meant "that thing yonder", similar to あれ. Later came to mean any person aside from the speaker(s) and listener(s), and was used for both male and female referents up until the Meiji period. | ||
4 | we | pronoun | わたしたち | 私達 | See usage above for わたし. | Combination of わたし + pluralizing suffix たち. | |
5 | you (plural) |
pronoun | あなたがた | 貴方方 | Combination of あなた + pluralizing suffix たち. | ||
6 | they | pronoun | かれら | 彼等 | Combination of かれ + pluralizing suffix ら. | ||
7 | this | これ, この | 此・是・之・維・惟, 此の・斯の | これ is used as a noun, as in これを食べる I eat this. この is used as an adjective, as in このケーキを食べる I eat this cake. | Primarily written in kana, while the diversity of kanji forms are seen almost exclusively in archaic texts. Note that the の ending of the adjectival form seems to be the possessive / copulative の. | ||
8 | that (closer by) |
それ, その | 其・夫, 其の | それ is used as a noun, as in それを食べる I eat that. その is used as an adjective, as in そのケーキを食べる I eat that cake.
Note that the そ forms denote something closer to the listener than the speaker, while the あ forms denote something removed from both speaker and listener. |
Primarily written in kana, while the diversity of kanji forms are seen almost exclusively in archaic texts. Note that the の ending of the adjectival forms equates to the possessive / copulative の. | ||
8.5 | that (far off, i.e. "yon") |
あれ, あの | 彼, 彼の | あれ is used as a noun, as in あれを食べる I eat that. あの is used as an adjective, as in あのケーキを食べる I eat that cake.
Note that the そ forms denote something closer to the listener than the speaker, while the あ forms denote something removed from both speaker and listener. |
Primarily written in kana, while the diversity of kanji forms are seen almost exclusively in archaic texts. Note that the の ending of the adjectival forms seems to be the possessive / copulative の. | ||
9 | here | ここ | 此処・此所・此・是・爰・茲 | Note the overlap with これ. The suffix こ (処・所) denotes "place". | |||
10 | there (closer by) |
そこ | 其処・其所・其 | Note that the そ forms denote something closer to the listener than the speaker, while the あ forms denote something removed from both speaker and listener. | Note the overlap with それ. The suffix こ (処・所) denotes "place". | ||
10.5 | there (far off, i.e. "yon") |
あそこ | 彼処 | Note that the そ forms denote something closer to the listener than the speaker, while the あ forms denote something removed from both speaker and listener. | あこ may also be heard, but あそこ is the more common variant.
Note the overlap with あれ. The suffix こ (処・所) denotes "place". | ||
11 | who | だれ | 誰 | The original form was たれ (孰), but たれ is rarely used after mid-20c. Used only to refer to people.
Of general politeness, だれ is the most commonly used form of "who". Alternate expressions include どなた (何方) (more polite), どのかた (どの方) (more polite), and どいつ (less polite). |
Note the overlap with これ・それ・あれ・どれ. | ||
12 | what | なに | 何 | Shortens to なん before certain words, the most common example being だ・です, as in 何ですか nan desu ka, "what is it?" | |||
13 | where | どこ | 何処・何所 | Alternate form is いずこ (何処), archaic. Note overlap with いずれ (何れ) "which". | Note the overlap with ここ・そこ・あそこ, and with どれ "which". The suffix こ (処・所) denotes "place". | ||
14 | when | いつ | 何時 | These kanji are very seldom used for いつ, and are used instead for the word なんじ "what time". | |||
15 | how | どう, いかが | 如何 | どう is of general politeness. いかが is more formal.
These kanji are very seldom used for どう, and occasionally used for いかが. |
いかが (ikaga) is a shift from older 如何 (ika, “how, however”) + に (ni, adverbial particle) + か (ka, question particle).
Based on Portuguese records from the early 1600s, どう (dō) may be a shift from older だう (dau), with the initial da- element possibly the same as in 誰 (dare, “who”). | ||
16 | not | ない | This is a verbal suffix and not a discrete word. Usually follows the 未然形 (irrealis) form of the verb, eg. つかう "use" → つかわ + ない = つかわない "not use". | ||||
17 | all | みな, すべて, すっかり, あらゆる | 皆, 全て, [[]], [[]] | With the exception of 皆 (mina), all of these are either inflections or derivations of other roots. | |||
18 | many | adjective | おおい | 多い | From ancient root *opo "great, lots, much". | ||
19 | some | すこし, ちょっと | 少し, 一寸 | ちょっと is almost never written in kanji in modern Japanese. | |||
20 | few | adjective | すくない | 少ない | |||
21 | other | adjective | ほかの | 他の・外の | The の here is the possessive / copulative の. ほか is seldom written in kanji, but when it is, the 他 form is more common. | ||
22 | one | number | ひ・ひと | 一・壱 | Usually followed by suffix つ when counting generic things, becoming ひとつ. The more complicated kanji form is reserved for bank notes and other contexts where it is important to avoid "editing" the simpler kanji into a higher denomination. | ||
23 | two | number | ふ・ふた | 二・弐・双 | Usually followed by suffix つ (-tsu) when counting generic things, becoming ふたつ (futatsu). The more complicated kanji form is reserved for bank notes and other contexts where it is important to avoid "editing" the simpler kanji into a higher denomination.
The 双 form is generally not used for "two", but it is commonly used in the word 双子 (futago, “twin(s)”). |
||
24 | three | number | み | 三・参 | Usually followed by suffix つ when counting generic things, normally becoming みっつ. The more complicated kanji form is reserved for bank notes and other contexts where it is important to avoid "editing" the simpler kanji into a higher denomination. | ||
25 | four | number | よ・よん・すむい・すむゆ | 四・肆 | Usually followed by suffix つ when counting generic things, normally becoming よっつ. The more complicated kanji form is reserved for bank notes and other contexts where it is important to avoid "editing" the simpler kanji into a higher denomination.
The すむい・すむゆ pronunciations are reserved for games played on the hands, similar to the English "eenie meenie minie moe". |
||
26 | five | number | い・いつ | 五・伍 | Usually followed by suffix つ when counting generic things, normally becoming いつつ. The more complicated kanji form is reserved for bank notes and other contexts where it is important to avoid "editing" the simpler kanji into a higher denomination. | ||
27 | big | adjective | おおきい・おおきな | 大きい・大きな | This is one of the few irregular adjectives in Japanese, straddling the line between the so-called "i-adjectives" (形容詞) and "na-adjectives" (形容動詞). When in sentence-final position, the い form is used exclusively. | ||
28 | long | adjective | ながい | 長い・永い | The 長 kanji is the most commonly used. 永 may be used when describing a length of time. | Considered to come from the same root as the verb pair 流れる・流す (ながれる・ながす), "to flow" / "to make flow". | |
29 | wide | adjective | ひろい | 広い・寛い・闊い・弘い | The 広 kanji is the most commonly used. | ||
30 | thick | adjective | あつい, ふとい | 厚い, 太い | あつい describes flat things: 厚いコート (あついこーと), a thick coat.
ふとい describes round things: 太い首 (ふといくび), a thick neck. |
あつい is considered to come from the same root as the verb pair 集まる・集める (あつまる・あつめる), "to gather" (v.i.) / "to gather" (v.t.). | |
31 | heavy | adjective | おもい | 重い | |||
32 | small | adjective | ちいさい・ちいさな | 小さい・小さな | This is one of the few irregular adjectives in Japanese, straddling the line between the so-called "i-adjectives" (形容詞) and "na-adjectives" (形容動詞). When in sentence-final position, the い form is used exclusively. | ||
33 | short | adjective | みじかい | 短い | Generally only used as an antonym to 長い "long", but occasionally seen as antonym to 高い "tall". | ||
34 | narrow | adjective | ほそい, せまい | 細い, 狭い | 細い refers to something narrow as seen from the outside, as a neck or a pencil. 狭い refers to something narrow as seen from the inside, as a street or a room. | ||
35 | thin | adjective | うすい, ほそい | 薄い, 細い | 薄い can refer to thin color, thin liquid (as in thin ink), or thin flat things (as in thin paper or clothing). 細い can refer to a thin person. | ||
36 | woman | noun | おんな | 女 | |||
37 | man (adult male) |
noun | おとこ | 男 | |||
38 | man (human being) |
noun | ひと | 人 | Note overlap with ひと "one". | ||
39 | child (a youth) |
noun | こども | 子供 | Used equally to refer to one child or many children. | Literally 子 ("child") + 供 ("member" or "with"). | |
40 | wife | noun | つま | 妻 | Only used to refer to one's own wife in spoken language, but used to refer to anyone's wife in written language. Originally meant "spouse", and used for both wife and husband. | ||
41 | husband | noun | おっと | 夫 | Only used to refer to one's own husband in spoken language, but used to refer to anyone's husband in written language. | ||
42 | mother | noun | はは, おかあさん | 母, お母さん | 母 is only used to refer to one's own mother. お母さん can be used both as a term of address to one's own mother, or to refer to another's mother. The さん ending is an honorific suffix. | ||
43 | father | noun | ちち, おとうさん | 父, お父さん | 父 is only used to refer to one's own father. お父さん can be used both as a term of address to one's own father, or to refer to another's father. The さん ending is an honorific suffix. | ||
44 | animal | noun | animal | けもの, けだもの | 獣 | Both pronunciations are written with the same kanji. Meaning roughly closer to English "beast". | Literally means "hairy thing", from words け (毛) "hair" and もの (物) "thing". |
45 | fish | noun | animal | さかな, うお | 魚 | Both pronunciations are written with the same kanji. うお is mostly used for compound word like 魚市場 (うおいちば, "fish market"), さかな is used anywhere else. | さかな is etymologically a compound noun, coming from さか (alternate for さけ (酒) "liquor" or "rice wine") and な (菜) "snack" or "side dish". |
46 | bird | noun | animal | とり | 鳥 | ||
47 | dog | noun | animal | いぬ | 犬・狗 | ||
48 | louse | noun | animal | しらみ | 虱 | This may be a compound noun, comprising しら "white" + み "body". | |
49 | snake | noun | animal | へび | 蛇 | ||
50 | worm | noun | animal | むし | 虫 | ||
51 | tree | noun | plant | き | 木 | ||
52 | forest | noun | [[]] | もり | 森 | ||
53 | stick (of wood) |
noun | [[]] | えだ | 枝 | ||
54 | fruit | noun | [[]] | かじつ | 果実 | ||
55 | seed | noun | [[]] | たね | 種 | ||
56 | leaf | noun | [[]] | は | 葉 | ||
57 | root | noun | [[]] | ね | 根 | ||
58 | bark (of tree) |
noun | [[]] | きはだ | 木肌 | ||
59 | flower | noun | [[]] | はな | 花 | ||
60 | grass | noun | [[]] | くさ | 草 | ||
61 | rope | noun | [[]] | なわ | 縄 | ||
62 | skin (of a person) |
noun | [[]] | はだ | 肌 | ||
63 | meat (as in flesh) |
noun | [[]] | にく | 肉 | ||
64 | blood | noun | [[]] | ち | 血 | ||
65 | bone | noun | [[]] | ほね | 骨 | ||
66 | fat (noun) |
noun | [[]] | あぶら | 脂 | ||
67 | egg | noun | [[]] | たまご | 卵 | ||
68 | horn | noun | [[]] | つの | 角 | ||
69 | tail | noun | [[]] | お | 尾 | ||
70 | feather (rather not down) |
noun | [[]] | はね | 羽 | ||
71 | hair | noun | body part | け | 毛 | Used alone this refers more commonly to fur. Typically in Japanese the type of hair must be explicitly stated as well, as in 髪の毛 the hair of your "mane" or rather the hair of your head. Others include 鼻毛 nose hair, 眉毛 eyebrows, among others. | |
72 | head | noun | body part | あたま | 頭 | ||
73 | ear | noun | body part | みみ | 耳 | ||
74 | eye | noun | body part | め | 目 | ||
75 | nose | noun | body part | はな | 鼻 | ||
76 | mouth | noun | body part | くち | 口 | ||
77 | tooth (rather not molar) |
noun | body part | は | 歯 | ||
78 | tongue | noun | body part | した | 舌 | ||
79 | fingernail | noun | body part | つめ | 爪 | ||
80 | foot | noun | body part | あし | 足, 脚 | ||
81 | leg | noun | body part | あし・すね | 足, 脚・脛 | ||
82 | knee | noun | body part | ひざ | 膝 | ||
83 | hand | noun | body part | て | 手 | ||
84 | wing | noun | body part | つばさ | 翼 | ||
85 | belly | noun | body part | はら | 腹 | ||
86 | guts | noun | body part | きも | 肝, 胆 | ||
87 | neck | noun | body part | くび | 首 | ||
88 | back | noun | body part | せなか | 背中 | ||
89 | breast | noun | body part | むね | 胸 | ||
90 | heart | noun | body part | こころ | 心 | ||
91 | liver | noun | body part | きも | 肝 | ||
92 | to drink | verb | [[]] | のむ | 飲む | ||
93 | to eat | verb | [[]] | くう | 食う | ||
94 | to bite | verb | [[]] | かむ | |||
95 | to suck | verb | [[]] | すう | 吸う | ||
96 | to spit | verb | [[]] | はく | 吐く | Note the similarity to 97. To indicate spit specifically, the object can be included, as in 唾を吐く. | |
97 | to vomit | verb | [[]] | はく | 吐く | ||
98 | to blow (as wind) |
verb | [[]] | ふく | 吹く | ||
99 | to breathe | verb | [[]] | いきをする | 息をする | Literally mean "to do breath", 息 means "breath", を is a accusative (direct object) marker, and する means "to do". | |
100 | to laugh | verb | [[]] | わらう | 笑う | ||
101 | to see | verb | [[]] | みる | 見る | ||
102 | to hear | verb | [[]] | きく | 聞く | ||
103 | to know (a fact) |
verb | [[]] | しる | 知る | Closer to "to learn" or "to get to know", representing the change of state from "not knowing" to "knowing". | |
104 | to think | verb | [[]] | おもう, かんがえる | 思う, 考える | ||
105 | to smell (sense odor) |
verb | [[]] | かぐ | 嗅ぐ | ||
106 | to fear | verb | [[]] | おそれる | 恐れる | ||
107 | to sleep | verb | [[]] | ねむる | 眠る | ||
108 | to live (a life) |
verb | [[]] | いきる | 生きる | ||
109 | to die | verb | [[]] | しぬ | 死ぬ | ||
110 | to kill | verb | [[]] | ころす | 殺す | ||
111 | to fight | verb | [[]] | たたかう | 戦う | Originally たたかふ, Etymologically ”to hit repeatedly", たたく "to hit" + ふ (a marker that indicates repeating actions), たたかふ later became たたかう going through some phonological and orthographical change. | |
112 | to hunt (transitive) |
verb | [[]] | かる | 狩る | ||
113 | to hit | verb | [[]] | うつ, たたく | 打つ, 叩く | ||
114 | to cut | verb | [[]] | きる | 切る | ||
115 | to split | verb | [[]] | わる | 割る | ||
116 | to stab (or stick) |
verb | [[]] | さす | 刺す | ||
117 | to scratch (an itch) |
verb | [[]] | かく | 掻く | ||
118 | to dig | verb | [[]] | ほる | 掘る | ||
119 | to swim | verb | [[]] | およぐ | 泳ぐ | ||
120 | to fly | verb | [[]] | とぶ | 飛ぶ | ||
121 | to walk | verb | [[]] | あるく | 歩く | ||
122 | to come | verb | [[]] | くる | 来る | ||
123 | to lie (as on one's side) |
verb | [[]] | ねる, ねころぶ | 寝る, 寝転ぶ | 寝る usually means "to lie on a bed" or "to go to sleep", while 寝転ぶ means "to lie (anywhere)". | |
124 | to sit | verb | [[]] | すわる | 座る | ||
125 | to stand | verb | [[]] | たつ | 立つ | ||
126 | to turn (change direction) |
verb | [[]] | まわる | 回る | ||
127 | to fall (as in drop) |
verb | [[]] | おちる | 落ちる | ||
128 | to give | verb | [[]] | あたえる | 与える | ||
129 | to hold (in one's hand) |
verb | [[]] | もつ | 持つ | ||
130 | to squeeze (with one's hand) | verb | [[]] | にぎる | 握る | ||
131 | to rub | verb | [[]] | する | 擦る | ||
132 | to wash | verb | [[]] | あらう | 洗う | ||
133 | to wipe | verb | [[]] | ふく, ぬぐう | 拭く, 拭う | ||
134 | to pull | verb | [[]] | ひく・ひっぱる | 引く・引っ張る | ||
135 | to push | verb | [[]] | おす | 押す | ||
136 | to throw | verb | [[]] | なげる | 投げる | ||
137 | to tie | verb | [[]] | むすぶ・くくる・しばる | 結ぶ・括る・縛る | ||
138 | to sew | verb | [[]] | ぬう | 縫う | ||
139 | to count | verb | [[]] | かぞえる | 数える | ||
140 | to say | verb | [[]] | いう | 言う | ||
141 | to sing | verb | [[]] | うたう | 歌う | ||
142 | to play | verb | [[]] | あそぶ | 遊ぶ | ||
143 | to float | verb | [[]] | うく | 浮く | ||
144 | to flow | verb | [[]] | ながれる | 流れる | ||
145 | to freeze | verb | [[]] | こおる | 凍る | ||
146 | to swell | verb | [[]] | ふくらむ, ふくれる, はれる | 膨らむ, 膨れる, 腫れる | ||
147 | sun | noun | [[]] | ひ | 日 | ||
148 | moon | noun | [[]] | つき | 月 | ||
149 | star | noun | [[]] | ほし | 星 | ||
150 | water | noun | [[]] | みず | 水 | Typically only used for fresh water. Hot water is お湯 | |
151 | to rain | verb | [[]] | あめがふる | 雨が降る | Literally means "rain comes down", 雨 means "rain", が is a nominative (subject) marker, and 降る means "to come down" (only for something that comes from sky). | |
152 | river | noun | [[]] | かわ | 川, 河 | ||
153 | lake | noun | [[]] | みずうみ | 湖 | ||
154 | sea (as in ocean) |
noun | [[]] | うみ | 海 | ||
155 | salt | noun | [[]] | しお | 塩 | ||
156 | stone | noun | [[]] | いし | 石 | ||
157 | sand | noun | [[]] | すな | 砂 | ||
158 | dust | noun | [[]] | ほこり | 埃 | ||
159 | earth (as in soil) |
noun | [[]] | つち | 土 | ||
160 | cloud | noun | [[]] | くも | 雲 | ||
161 | fog | noun | [[]] | きり | 霧 | ||
162 | sky | noun | [[]] | そら | 空 | ||
163 | wind (as in breeze) |
noun | [[]] | かぜ | 風 | ||
164 | snow | noun | [[]] | ゆき | 雪 | ||
165 | ice | noun | [[]] | こおり | 氷 | ||
166 | smoke | noun | [[]] | けむり | 煙 | ||
167 | fire | noun | [[]] | ひ | 火 | ||
168 | ashes | noun | [[]] | はい | 灰 | ||
169 | to burn (intransitive) |
verb | [[]] | もえる | 燃える | ||
170 | road | noun | [[]] | みち | 道 | ||
171 | mountain | noun | noun | やま | 山 | ||
172 | red | adjective | color | あか | 赤 | ||
173 | green | adjective | color | みどり | 緑 | ||
174 | yellow | adjective | color | きいろ | 黄色 | ||
175 | white | adjective | color | しろ | 白 | ||
176 | black | adjective | color | くろ | 黒 | ||
177 | night | noun | [[]] | よる | 夜 | ||
178 | day (daytime) |
noun | [[]] | ひる | 昼 | This typically only includes the day between noon and dusk. | |
179 | year | noun | [[]] | とし | 年 | ||
180 | warm (as in weather) |
adjective | [[]] | あたたかい | 暖かい | ||
181 | cold (as in weather) |
adjective | [[]] | さむい | 寒い | ||
182 | full | adjective | [[]] | みちた | 満ちた | This is actually a verb in its past tense, not an adjective. | |
183 | new | adjective | [[]] | あたらしい | 新しい | ||
184 | old | adjective | [[]] | ふるい | 古い | ||
185 | good | adjective | [[]] | よい | 良い | ||
186 | bad | adjective | [[]] | わるい | 悪い | ||
187 | rotten (as, a log) |
adjective | [[]] | くさった | 腐った | This is actually a verb in its past tense, not an adjective. | |
188 | dirty | adjective | [[]] | きたない | 汚い | ||
189 | straight | adjective | [[]] | まっすぐだ | 真っ直ぐだ | ||
190 | round | adjective | [[]] | まるい | 丸い | ||
191 | sharp (as a knife) |
adjective | [[]] | するどい | 鋭い | ||
192 | dull (as a knife) |
adjective | [[]] | にぶい | 鈍い | ||
193 | smooth | adjective | [[]] | なめらかだ | 滑らかだ | ||
194 | wet | adjective | [[]] | ぬれている | 濡れている | This is actually a verb in its continuative aspect. | |
195 | dry (adjective) |
adjective | [[]] | かわいている | 乾いている | This is actually verbs in the continuative aspect. | |
196 | right (correct) |
[[]] | [[]] | ただしい | 正しい | ||
197 | near | adjective | [[]] | ちかい | 近い | ||
198 | far | adjective | [[]] | とおい | 遠い | ||
199 | right (side) |
noun | [[]] | みぎ | 右 | ||
200 | left (side) |
noun | [[]] | ひだり | 左 | ||
201 | at | preposition | [[]] | で | - | ||
202 | in | preposition | [[]] | で、のなかで | - , の中で | の中で literally means "at inside of" | |
203 | with (accompanying) |
preposition | [[]] | と | ― | ||
204 | and | conjunction | [[]] | と, そして | - , ― | と is mostly used when saying "(a noun) and (a noun)", そして is used when connecting clauses or sentences. | |
205 | if | [[]] | [[]] | もし | 若し | ||
206 | because | [[]] | [[]] | なぜなら | 何故なら | ||
207 | name | noun | [[]] | なまえ | 名前 |