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User:Alexlin01/NH cognates

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Lexical reconstructions

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North Halmaheran

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*'ʔu.fis

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(intransitive) to flow
  • West Makian: ufi, yufi
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ʔu.his
    • Galela: uhi
    • Loloda: uisi
    • Tobelo: uihi
    • Tabaru: uisi (should probably/might actually be 'uisi)
    • Sahu: 'uisi
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔu.hi

*'bu.L(o/a)ŋ

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(stative) white
May not be reconstructible to PNH; West Makian may be an early borrowing from PTT
  • West Makian: bulo (found in Teljeur's lists)
    • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'bu.Loŋ

*'cu.p1ir

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nail (fingernail, toenail)

☆ All Nuclear NH terms contain a prefixes of the form golo-, gulu-, gili-, or gi-. If the PNNH form of the root was something like *gol or *gul, then varying combinations of cluster simplification, epenthesis, and vowel assimilation could account for the reflexes seen. The Paḏisua term (with devoicing and final m and ʔ) is highly irregular if it belongs to this proto-form. The Ternate form with initial k- may be due to contamination with several other terms with initial kolo- (and hardly any with initial golo-).

*'fa.te

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tree
  • West Makian: fete
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ha.te
    • Sahu: ate
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ha.te

*'fi.na(r)

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(stative) thin

*'fi.tom

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kitchen
  • West Makian: fito
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'hi.tom
    • Sahu: itomo
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.to

*'ga.si

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salt
All of the Nuclear NH terms (excluding Tidore) could have been borrowed from Ternate.
From Austronesian (*qasiN) with *N- prefixation.
  • Old West Makian:
    • West Makian: ase
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera

*gu.'bu.al

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termite
  • Old West Makian: *gu.'bu.al → *u.'bu.al (reconstruction due to Voorhoeve, stress mine)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *gu.'bu.al
    • Galela: gubuala (improper retention of final consonant/echo vowel)
    • Ternate: bua (irregular loss of initial gu)
    • Tidore: gabua (Kamus Tidore), gubua (cited by Voorhoeve)

*'i.gon

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coconut
  • West Makian: iono, yono (“areca nut”) (connections between areca nuts and coconuts appear to be well-supported areally)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'i.gon

*'i.fok

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excrement
  • ?West Makian: fu
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'i.hok
    • Galela: iho
    • Loloda: ihoko
    • Tobelo: ioko
    • ?Sahu: kio'o (initial k is unexpected)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ho

*'ka.fi ~ *'a.fi

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skin
  • Old West Makian: *kafi (with ultimate stress?) (Voorhoeve)
    • West Makian: fi
  • Galela: kahi
  • Modole: 'ai
  • Tabaru: kai
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'a.hi

*'ma.ri(ŋ)

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stone

*'m(o/a).daŋ

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mouth
  • West Makian: mada
  • Galela: moda (Baarda lists it as a taboo substitute for the usual uru, so it may be borrowed. I could not find a Loloda cognate)
  • Sahu: madanga
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.da (Allen 2000) ~ *'mo.da

*mo.'tek

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(transitive) to follow
  • Old West Makian: *'mo.te (or from PTT)
  • Galela: mote
  • Loloda: moteke
  • Tobelo: moteke
  • Sahu: mete'e
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te
    • Ternate: mote
    • Tidore: mote (“to obey”)

*'(ŋ)o.fat

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(stative) wide

*'ŋo.lot

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sea
  • West Makian: wolot (or reborrowed from South Halmaheran)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ŋo.lot

*'ɲi.far

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kenari
  • ?West Makian: ifa
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ɲi.har
    • Galela: niha
    • Loloda: miara
    • Tobelo: niara (njiara in Hueting)
    • Tabaru: nyiara (may actually by niara, influenced by the i and possibly by Ternate)
    • Sahu: nyiala
    • Ternate: nyiha

*'()o.muk

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(stative) ripe (of fruit specifically?)
  • ?West Makian: mu, mo
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.muk

*'o.p1un ~ *'o.p1uŋ

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bee, wasp
  • Old West Makian: *opin (Voorhoeve)
    • West Makian: pin
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.p1un
    • Galela: hopu (with irregular /h/ here, or with irregular loss in Ternate)
    • Tobelo: ohungu (H), ofungu (B)
    • Pagu: owun
    • Modole: owungu
    • Sahu: wounu (with metathesis from *owunu?)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.fu

*'o.tir

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boat, canoe

*'()o.Za

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moon
  • Old West Makian: *'o.da
    • West Makian: odo
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.Za
    • Galela: ngoosa (with prefix ngo-)
    • Proto-Sahuic: *'ŋo.ra (with N- prefixation)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra

*'p1a.it or *'p2a.it

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(intransitive?) to dig
  • Old West Makian: *pait
    • West Makian: pai
    • ?→ East Makian: pait
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'p1a.it
    • Galela: puai (labialization of p1?)
    • Loloda: waiti
  • Sahu: paiti
  • Tobelo: haiti
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fa.i

☆ Sahu points to p2, but the rest point to p1.

*'p1o.la

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house
  • West Makian: pala
  • Galela: pola (“ricebarn”)
  • Loloda: wola
  • Tabaru: woa
  • Proto-Paguic: *'wo.la
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'wo.la
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la

*'p1o.li

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(transitive) to buy
From Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *poli, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *bəli.
  • West Makian: poli
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'po.li
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.li
      • Ternate: fodi (with unexpected l → d)
      • Tidore: foli

*'p1o.ŋan ~ *'bo.ŋan

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forest
  • West Makian: pangan (“undergrowth, grass, forest”)
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'p1o.ŋan
    • Galela: ponga
    • Loloda: wongana (Baarda's Loloda Grammar suggests wongana (but I know no Dutch). Wada lists hongana which would likely be a loan)
  • Tobelo: hongana, Tobelo: fongana (in Taylor)
  • Tabaru: bongana
  • Sahu: bangana
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ŋa

*'p2o.ŋo(n/l)

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(stative) deaf
From Austronesian. Compare Cebuano bungol.

*'p1u.tu

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night
  • West Makian: putuiwu (“when”, literally “how many nights”) (de Clercq argues that the North Halmaherans already had a night-based system of reckoning - as opposed to a day-based one as in English)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'p1utu

*'sa.fuk

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(stative) warm
  • West Makian: safo (with vowel lowering triggered by a?)
  • Ternate: sahu
  • Sahu: sau'u

*'so.fat

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palm, sole
  • West Makian: safat
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'so.hat
    • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'so.hat
    • Sahu: sata (might actually be saata or may have shortened from that)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'sa.ha
    • ?→ East Makian: sahat (“slap”)

*'so.fot

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pig
  • West Makian: sufu (as sufú)
  • PNNH: *'so.hot
    • Proto-Sahuic: *'so.hot
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ho

*'so.mam

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crocodile

*'so.p1ok

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fruit
  • West Makian: sopo
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'so.p1ok
  • Pagu: sowok
  • Modole: howo'o - but in Ellen's Woordenlijst (pg. 109), the third entry of o bole has the misspelled "ha'oo", presumably for "hao'o".
  • Tobelo: hohoko
  • Sahu: sowo'o
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.fo

*'ta.duk

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and not *taḋu
horn (of an animal)

*'to.Zik

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*'tu.p1am

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sky
  • West Makian: tupam (but! Tagono village has "tipam")
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.fa

*'wa.Z(o/u)

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(transitive) to know
  • West Makian: wado
  • Galela: wasu
  • Tobelo: waho (but also waru, with the same meaning)
  • Sahu: waro (or borrowed from Ternate)
  • Ternate: waro
  • Tidore: waro

Nuclear North Halmaheran

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*'ʔa.don

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(intransitive) to arrive, reach

*'ʔa.res

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(stative) to be white
Not in TT, WM, Pagu

*'ʔa.ri

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(intransitive) to cry
  • Galela: ari
  • Loloda: ari
  • Tabaru: 'ari
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'ʔa.ri
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
    • Ternate: 'ari
    • Tidore: yari (“to moan”)

*'ʔa.Zok

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(transitive) to call, summon

*'ʔo.to

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(transitive) to cut, chop

☆ These are all a little too similar

*'ʔo.Zik

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("transitive") to bathe

*'ʔu.dar

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(transitive) to weed

*'ʔu.tuk

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(transitive) to pluck, pick, harvest

*'()a.kun

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(auxiliary) to be allowed to, may; to be able to

*'()a.tom

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body louse, bedbug
  • Galela: ato (“body louse”)
  • Loloda: atomo (“body louse”)
  • Tobelo: atomo (“bed bug, bamboe luis”)

*'ba.tiŋ

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boundary, border, grens
  • ?Galela: bati (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
  • Tabaru: batingi
  • Tobelo: (van der Roest has "bàtėng" which may just represent "batingi")
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ti

☆ Both Ternate and Tidore have fati ("to block, close"), and Ternate bati is thought to derive from N- + fati. But, no cognates of fati are found in other languages.

*'ba.waŋ

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onion

☆ From PMP or from Malay specifically (for example, Philippine reflexes strictly mean garlic). Entered Halmahera at least before PTT lost finals.

  • ?Galela: bawa (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
  • Tobelo: bawanga
  • Modole: bawanga
  • Pagu: bawang
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.wa
    • Ternate: bawa
      • → Tobelo: bawa (alongside the inherited form above)
      • → Sahu: bawa
    • Tidore: bawa

*'ba.Zuk

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axe

*'be.laŋ

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lightning

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1elaŋ?

*'be.sak

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rain

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1esak?

*'be.toŋ

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word

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1etoŋ ("to say, mention").

*be.'Ze.Zoŋ

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(transitive) to order (a good, service), to request, instruct, command

*'bi.dos

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sirih
  • ?Galela: bido (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
  • Tobelo: bidoho
  • Tabaru: bidoso
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bi.do
    • Ternate: bido
      • → Sahu: biḏo (expected reflex is *bidoso, possibly with implosion of d)
      • → Loloda: bido (expected reflex is *bidoso)
    • Tidore: bido

*'bi.on

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face

*bo.'ʔo.car

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octopus

*'bo.bor

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nipa palm

*'bo.le

[edit]
banana
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'bo.le
  • Tobelo: bole
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'bo.le

☆ Or a widespread borrowing.

*bo.'te.kon

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arm, upper arm, forearm

*'ca.hi

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(transitive) to carry on the back
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ta.hi
  • Tobelo: tai (“carry on the back, on the head”)
  • Tabaru: tai
  • Sahu: cai
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi

*'ca.kor

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(transitive) to hit, strike (especially of a clock?)

*'co.mar

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neck

*'cu.mut

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(transitive) to point at, point, indicate

*'da.hen

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(transitive) to get, obtain
  • Galela: dahe
  • Loloda: daene
  • Tobelo: (van der Roest has "daieni" ("to hunt down, catch up, get"))
  • Tabaru: daene
  • ?Sahu: daene (“to hit deliberately”)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'da.he

*'da.tom

[edit]

☆ Compare with *utom

(transitive) to plant

*di.'ʔi.kit

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cough

☆ Nominalization, through N-, of *tiʔikit ("to cough"). Glottal stop reconstructed only on the basis of Tabaru (see *tiʔikit).

*'di.p1aŋ ~ *'di.p1am?

[edit]
sky

*'do.ḋa

[edit]
inside, within (as a noun)
  • Loloda: doja
  • Tobelo: dol̄a
  • Tabaru: doda
  • Sahu: dara
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'do.ḋa
    • Ternate: daha
    • Tidore: doya
      • → Tobelo: doya (Listed in Hueting's dictionary (as doja) as borrowed from Ternate, but only Tidore has such a form)

*do.'wo.ŋi

[edit]
and not *ḋowoŋi
beach, shore, coast

☆ Nominalization of *to.'wo.ŋi through N- prefixation.

*'du.dun

[edit]
and not *ḋuḋun
back (body)

*'du.kon

[edit]
volcano (and volcanic eruption? and/or lava)

*'ḋa.bos

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(stative) swollen
  • West Makian: bosi
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ḋo.bos
    • Galela: ḋobo (Baarda lists dobo (with N- prefixed form nobo) but Wada has ḋobo and Loloda jobo)
    • Loloda: jobo
  • Pagu: yabos
  • Modole: oboho (expected reflex is *doboho)
  • Tobelo: l̄oboho, l̄aboho (Ellen's Modole dictionary has λaboho in the Tobelo column)
  • Sahu: roboso
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.bo

*'ḋa.bo(t)

[edit]
(stative) wounded
  • Old West Makian: *ḋabo
    • West Makian: abo (Voorhoeve posits /*ḋ/ -> /_/ in all positions)
  • Galela: ḋabo
  • Loloda: jabo
  • Tobelo: l̄abo
  • Modole: dabo
  • Tabaru: dabo

☆ Final -t is reconstructed only on the basis of *(n/ɲ)a.bo(t)

*'ḋa.gi(m)

[edit]
(transitive) to owe
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: 'ḋa.gi
    • Ternate: hagi (“debt”)
    • Tidore: yagi (“to owe”)

☆ Reconstructed with final m only on the basis of *'ɲa.gim ("debt").

*'ḋa.hus

[edit]
(transitive) to smear, anoint

*'ḋa.ŋer

[edit]
Alstonia scholaris (a tree)

*'ḋa.sir

[edit]
(intransitive) to swallow
  • Galela: ḋasi
  • Tobelo: l̄ahiri (Ellen's Modole dictionary - under slikken)
  • Modole: ahili (expected reflex is *dahili)

*'ḋo.ku ~ 'ḋeku

[edit]
mountain

*'ḋo.p1o(r) ~ 'ḋe.p1o(r)

[edit]
smoke
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: 'ḋo.p1o
  • Tobelo: l̄oho
  • Tabaru: dowo
  • Sahu: loworo (Expected reflex is *roworo or *rowolo)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.fo ~ *'ye.fo

*'(f/h)o.rik

[edit]
(transitive) to see
  • West Makian: fidi (“to meet”) (If this is cognate to the rest, reconstruct *f, otherwise ??)
  • Tobelo: oriki
  • Modole: ngoli'i (with N- prefixation)
  • Sahu: oḏi'i
  • Ternate: nyodi (with irregular N- prefixation; expected form is *ngodi, since this h would derive from historical *h)

*'ga.gu(r/k)

[edit]
vegetable fern

*'ga.te(r)

[edit]
liver
From Austronesian with *N- prefixation. Compare Proto-Oceanic *qate.

*gi.'ti.p1ir

[edit]
fingernail, toenail

*go.'ce.p1at

[edit]
raft

*'go.ta(r)

[edit]
tree

☆ Reconstructing final /r/ only because no other reconstructions seem to have final /l/, and Ibu neutralizes both to /l/ in final position.

*gu.'ru.min

[edit]
shadow; reflection; life strength (in Visser & Voorhoeve: "kekuatan hidup"; in Ellen's Pagu dictionary: "zielestof")

*'gu.tiŋ

[edit]
scissors

☆ We presume this form, but all NH terms seem borrowed from Ternate (except possibly Tidore and Galela)

*'ha.p1or

[edit]
Canarium decumanum

*'i.ŋir

[edit]
tooth

*'ja.Luk

[edit]
sagwire (Dutch: sagoweer, saguweer), aren palm sap

*'ka.biŋ

[edit]
goat

*'ka.wiŋ

[edit]
(Nuclear NH)
(transitive) to marry, wed

☆ From Classical Malay (Late Old Malay?) kawin

  • Galela: kawi
  • Loloda: kawingi
  • Tobelo: kawingi (H)
  • Ternate: kai
    • → Tobelo: kawi (H) (presumably from an older form that preserved the w)

*ke.'le.lo ~ *ge.'le.lo

[edit]
(transitive) to see

☆ The intial voiced terms may just be N- prefixation

*ko.'la.no ~ *'ko.la.n(a)

[edit]
(Nuclear NH)
kolano

☆ Possibly from Old/Middle Javanese kalana (c.f. Javanese klana, from older form kelana), meaning "a fierce character, originally a prince from overseas" and "a wandering adventurer of noble birth from abroad". The initial stress reconstruction may have been borrowed with the final vowel, which would then have been re-interpreted as an echo vowel.

*'ko.Zo

[edit]
(transitive) to fetch (of people), to invite

*'ku.sor

[edit]
Phalanger orientalis

*'ku.sum

[edit]
Imperata cylindrica

*'la.ḋem

[edit]
(intransitive) to lick
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'la.ḋem
    tongue, (intransitive) to lick
    • Galela: laḋe (Baarda has ḋ, Wada mistakenly(?) writes d)
    • Loloda: lajeme (Baarda's grammar has ladjémé, whereas Wada has lajema)
  • Pagu: layem
  • Tobelo: al̄eme (unknown dialect)
  • Tabaru: aeme (with unexpected loss of *ḋ)
  • Ternate-Tidore: *'ya.le (presuming metathesis in this branch)

*'la.kem

[edit]
meat

*'Lu.suŋ

[edit]
mortar, rice pounder

☆ From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *lusuŋ (“mortar”).

  • ?West Makian: losong (Certainly from Austronesian; may or may not reflect this proto-form)
  • Galela: lusu
  • Loloda: lusungu
  • Tobelo: luhungu
  • Pagu: lusing (in Ellen)

*'ma.ḋek

[edit]
(stative) to be ashamed
  • ?West Makian: maya
  • Galela: made (written as such by Baarda, but it must be a typo for maḋe)
  • Loloda: majeke
  • Tobelo: mal̄eke
  • Sahu: mara'a
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ḋe
    • Ternate: mahe
    • Tidore: mae (may be underlyingly maye)

*'ma.ke

[edit]
(transitive) to find, meet
  • Galela: make (“find, get, obtain”)
  • Loloda: make (“find”)
  • Tabaru: make (“see, meet, find”)

*'ma.nok

[edit]
flying fox (paniki), bat, fruitbat

*'ma.ŋon

[edit]
(stative) sharp

*mo.'la.yu(n)?

[edit]
Malay (ethnicity)

☆ If we suppose that Tobelo and Pagu lost a final /n/, then we can reconstruct this proto-form. Otherwise, a late-stage borrowing that spread?

*mo.'le.(o/u)n

[edit]
Megapodius freycinet

*'mo.kur

[edit]
pinang, sirih; (intransitive) to chew sirih

☆ Fortgens (in his Tabaru grammar) lists Sahu-Waioli moudu (pg. 324), which mostly likely represents mo'uḏu or something similar. Visser and Voorhoeve don't list this.

*mo.'na.ram

[edit]
work (noun)

*'mu.ruŋ ~ *'mu.rum

[edit]
star

*'na.ko

[edit]
(transitive) to know

*'na.mo(r)

[edit]
bird, chicken

☆ Sahuic forms without a third consonant may be loans from Ternate

*'na.rot

[edit]
(transitive) to pull
  • Loloda: naroto
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'na.ro

*'ŋa.ir

[edit]
river

*'ɲa.bo(t)

[edit]
wound
Nominalization, through N-, of *ḋabo(t).

*'ɲa.gim

[edit]
debt
  • Galela: nagi
  • Loloda: nagimi
  • Tobelo: (van der Roest spelling is nagěmi)
  • Ternate: nyagi

*'ɲi.hik

[edit]
(transitive) to follow, chase, hunt

*'o.ker

[edit]
(transitive) to drink
  • Tobelo: okere
  • Modole: o'ele
  • Tabaru: okere
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'o.ʔe (with irregular loss of final /r/)
    • Sahu: o'e (Tala'i dialect)
    • Waioli: o'e
  • Ternate: oke
    • → Gamkonora: oke (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)
    • → Ibu: oke (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)

*'p1a.Lus

[edit]
(intransitive) to answer, respond

*'p2a.Lus

[edit]
(intransitive) to answer, respond
  • Tobelo: paluhu
  • Sahu: paḏusu (“to call out in answer to someone in the distance”)

*'p2a.sa(r/l)

[edit]
(stative) to be past (gone past, walked past, etc.)

☆ Reminiscent of Portuguese passar

*'p1e.kat

[edit]
wife

*'p1e.laŋ

[edit]
(transitive, intransitive) to open

*'p1e.sak

[edit]
(stative) wet

*'p2i.lok

[edit]
(stative) blind

*p1o.'ḋe.ka

[edit]
wife
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *p1e.'ḋe.ka
  • Sahu: were'a
  • Waioli: were'a
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *fo.'ye.ka
    • Ternate: foheka
    • Tidore: fayaa (Hueting has "fofoja" for woman [compare Ternate fofoheka], suggesting a form "foyaa" as well)

*'p1o.ki

[edit]
eggplant

*'p1o.kor

[edit]
(stative) pregnant

*'p2o.kor

[edit]
belly

*p2o.'li.kur

[edit]
(transitive) to bind (mengikat)

*p2o.'lo.tek

[edit]
(intransitive) to burst

*'p1o.nat

[edit]
ridge (of a roof, house)

*p2o.'ro.tok

[edit]
(transitive) to chew

*'p1o.son

[edit]
(stative) forbidden

*p2o.'tu.ruŋ

[edit]
(stative) strong

*'p1u.ku(r)

[edit]
knee

*'ra.cim

[edit]
poison

*'ro.hes

[edit]
body, flesh
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ro.hes ("body")
  • Tobelo: rohe (“body”) (may be rohee), roehe (in Hueting)
  • Tabaru: roese
  • Pagu: loes
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'lo.hes ("body")
    • Sahu: lese
    • Waioli: lese
    • Gamkonora: lese
    • Ibu: lose (perhaps as *lohese -> *losehe -> *losee)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'re.he ("flesh")

*'ro.kat

[edit]
husband

*'sa.man

[edit]
proa outrigger

*'sa.p1in

[edit]
(stative) hungry

*'sa.yak

[edit]
flower

*se.'le.wo?

[edit]
stone

*'si.det

[edit]
sail, (intransitive) to sail

*'si.Lo

[edit]
resin, torch

*ti.'ʔi.kit

[edit]
(intransitive) to cough

*'to.boŋ

[edit]
(intransitive) to swim

*'to.ḋom

[edit]
(stative) sharp, pointed; (transitive) to sharpen

*to.'ma.kon

[edit]
axe

*'to.nok

[edit]
(transitive) to submerge, soak, dunk, dip
  • Galela: tono
  • Tabaru: tonoko
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.no
    • Ternate: tono
      • → Sahu: tono (expected reflex is "tono'o")
    • Tidore: tono

*'to.p2ok

[edit]
(transitive) to pierce, stab
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'to.p2ok
  • Tobelo: topoko
  • Pagu: topok
  • Modole: topo'o
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.p2o
    • Ternate: topo
    • Tidore: tofa (with irregular final vowel)

*to.'wo.ŋi

[edit]
  • (intransitive) to walk along the water's edge (beach, shore, river, etc.)
  • Galela: towongi
  • Loloda: tongi
  • Tobelo: towongi (“to walk along the beach”) ("weg langs het strand gaan")
  • Sahu: tongitongi (“to walk along the river”)
  • Ternate: towongi

*'tu.mun

[edit]

*'tu.tuk

[edit]

*'u.bor

[edit]
female (red) Eclectus roratus

*'u.tuk

[edit]
root (of a plant)

*'wa.ŋe(r)

[edit]
sun, day

*'wa.to(n/l)

[edit]
(stative) naked

*'wo.mas

[edit]
breath, (intransitive) to breathe

*'wo.ŋem

[edit]
(protective?) spirit

*'wo.sam

[edit]
(transitive) to enter

*'wo.tom

[edit]
(transitive) to bury
  • Sahu: otomo (“to bury, plant”)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.to

☆ Compare with *'da.tom

*'wo.t(u/i)t

[edit]
navel, umbilical cord
  • ?West Makian: woki, okit (possibly related?)
  • Galela: woti
  • Loloda: potiti (?????????)
  • Tobelo: wotiti
  • Sahu: ututu (from PSahuic *wutut?)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.tu

Numeral Reconstructions

[edit]

*'mo.i

[edit]
(Nuclear NH only; WM has minyé)

*diŋ

[edit]
two

☆ Listing this as *diŋ and not *di for a few reasons:

  1. the West Makian form
  2. works well with the reconstruction for 7
  3. Fortgens (in his Tabaru grammar) connects this with the word for "day after/before tomorrow" which can be reconstructed as PNNH *(mo)'diriŋ (PNH form still uncertain)

*si.'no.to

[edit]
(Nuclear NH - partial)

*'ʔa.ŋe(r)

[edit]
three

*fat

[edit]
four

*'to.fa(r)

[edit]
five

*Zam or *ram

[edit]
six

☆ not enough data to determine the initial consonant

*bu.'ta.ŋa

[edit]
(Nuclear NH - partial)
six

*tof.'diŋ

[edit]
seven

☆ Possible etymology: *tofa (“five”) +‎ *diŋ (“two”) → *ˌto.fa.'diŋ → *ˌtof.'diŋ (vowel elision)
☆☆ Old West Makian: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtop.'diŋ (fortition) → *ˌtep.'diŋ (vowel assimilation) → *ˌte.pe.'diŋ (re-epenthesis)
☆☆ Pre-Galela-Loloda/Modole/Sahuic: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ(i) (fricative to nasal) → *ˌto.mo.'diŋ(i) (re-epenthesis)
☆☆ Pre-Tabaru/Pagu: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ(i) (fricative to nasal) → *ˌto.mo.'di.ʔiŋ(i) (re-epenthesis and spontaneous lengthening?)
☆☆ Pre-Ternate-Tidore: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ (fricative to nasal) → *ˌtom.'di (loss of final consonant) → *ˌto.mo.'di (re-epenthesis) → *ˌto.mo.'di.ʔi (lengthening of final stressed vowel to fit syllable pattern; c.f. kurusii, etc.)
☆ Particularly strange is the */u/ that most languages have. The etymology above points to */o/, but comparatively, each and every language supports */u/. Most mainland languages are quite conservative with vowels, which makes this even stranger.

*tof.'ʔa.ŋe(r)

[edit]
eight

☆ Possible etymology: *tofa (“five”) +‎ *ʔaŋe(r) (“three”) → *ˌto.fa.'ʔa.ŋe(r) → *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe(r) (vowel elision)
☆☆ Old West Makian: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe → *ˌtof.'ka.ŋe (fortition) → *ˌtok.'pa.ŋe (fortition and methathesis) → *ˌtok.'ba.ŋe (spontaneous voicing?)
☆☆ Pre-Galela-Loloda: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe → *ˌtop.'ʔa.ŋe (fortition) → *ˌto.pa.'ʔa.ŋe (re-epenthesis)
☆☆ Pre-Tobelo/Modole/Pagu/Tabaru: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe(r) → *ˌto.'fa.ŋe(r) (glottal stop elision / cluster simplification) → *ˌto.'ha.ŋe(r) (passing from NH to Nuclear NH)
☆☆ Pre-Sahuic: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋer → *ˌto.'ʔa.ŋer (cluster simplification)
☆ Particularly strange is the */u/ that most languages have. The etymology above points to */o/, but comparatively, each and every language could support */u/. Most mainland languages are quite conservative with vowels, which makes this even stranger.

*'si.wo(r)

[edit]
nine
  • West Makian: siwe (vowel assimilation?)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'si.wo(r)
    • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'si.wo
    • Tobelo: hiwo (H)
    • Pagu: siwo
    • Tabaru: siwo
    • Proto-Sahuic: *'si.wor
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)

*mo.gi.'o.wok

[edit]
(Nuclear NH - partial)
ten

*mo.na.'ha.lok

[edit]
(Nuclear NH - partial)
twenty

*'ra.tus

[edit]
hundred

*'ca.lan?

[edit]
thousand
  • West Makian: calan (found in "calannye", where "nye" may be from "minye" ("one"))
  • Galela: cala
  • Loloda: calana
  • Tobelo: cana (saana found in Holton)
  • Tabaru: caana
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.la
    • Ternate: cala
      • → Sahu: cala (expected reflex is calana)
    • Tidore: cala

☆ Extremely odd that all terms have initial c. Maybe(???) influence from Ternate?

Development by Language

[edit]

West Makian

[edit]
  • In some cases, West Makian has final /i/ where the reconstruction has final consonant.
  1. *aun -> uni
  2. *samam -> samami
  3. *ḋabos -> bosi
  • In some cases, the last vowel of the West Makian reflex is /i/ in place of reconstructed /*u/. Note also Gane manik (“bird”), which may at least be related to the source of tadik.
  1. *opu(n/ŋ) -> pin
  2. *taduk -> tadik
Compare also West Makian simur, cognate to Malay sumur.
However, *safuk -> safo
  • Many of these terms suggest Old West Makian had ultimate (instead of penultimate) stress
  • My original hypothesis (now untenable) was that WM terms without final consonant were all loans from PTT. However, West Makian sopo is extremely unlikely to be a loan from PTT *sofo. Some such terms may ultimately be from PTT, but this shows that WM did lose final consonants independently too (just as Galela and PTT).

Notes

[edit]

Lexical

[edit]
  1. Compare NH *'p1oko(r/l) ("pregnant") and *'p2okor ("belly").
  2. PNH *dipaŋ/dipam and PNH *tupam may be doublets, and are often considered together.
  3. PNH *(n/ɲ)agim may be an N- prefixed form of some PNH term reflected in Ternate hagi. Galela, Loloda, and Sahu all show hagi as well, but these appear to be Ternate loans.
  4. PNH *s(o/a)mam ("crocodile") and *saman ("outrigger") are considered the same by Hueting, who states that *s(o/a)mam is a taboo substitution for the original term.

Potential Reconstructions?

[edit]
  1. Galela gososo, Loloda gojoro, and Ternate goroho (and Sahu goroho, Tobelo goroho), all meaning "oil".
  2. Galela tase, Loloda taje, Sahu tare, Ternate tare, Tobelo tahe, all meaning "to creep, crawl"
  3. Galela wosa, Loloda wojanga, Tobelo wohanga, all meaning "to forget"

Tree

[edit]

Putatively:

  • Old West Makian (isolated reconstructions provided by Voorhoeve)
    • West Makian
      • various dialects by village
  • Nuclear NH:
    • Galela-Loloda:
      • Galela
      • Loloda
    • Tobelo
      • Heleworuru dialect (Tobelo district - "genuine" or unmarked variety)
      • Boeng dialect (Kao district)
      • Dodinga dialect
    • Modole
    • Paguic:
      • Pagu
      • Kao
    • Tabaru
      • Nyeku dialect
      • Adu dialect
    • Sahuic:
      • Sahu
        • Paḏisua dialect
        • Tala'i dialect
      • Waioli
      • Gamkonora
      • Ibu
    • Ternate-Tidore:
      • Ternate
      • Tidore

Possible groupings

[edit]
  • Galela-Loloda and Tobelo may form a higher-order grouping. Traditional histories link the ethnic groups, and linguistically there is some shared lexicon not found in other branches (see *sinoto ("two") above, which even Pagu, Modole, and Tabaru don't share). A morphological analysis would be better to justify this.
  • Some "Northern" family grouping comprising of some or all of: Galela-Loloda, Tobelo, Tabaru, Pagu-Kao, Modole; note *butanga ("six"), *mogiowok ("ten"), and *monahalok ("twenty").
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