User:Alexlin01/NH cognates/Etymologies

Borrowings into NH

Austronesian donor

*'ʔo.to ("to cut, chop") - PNNH

• Extremely similar to Proto-Oceanic *otok (“to cut, sever”). However, we can't (yet) reconstruct a final *k for PNNH, which makes any connection suspicious.

*'ba.waŋ ("onion") - PNNH

• May not actually be reconstructible.
• From PMP or from Malay specifically (for example, Philippine reflexes strictly mean garlic). Entered Halmahera at least before PTT lost finals.

*'bu.L(o/a)ŋ ("white") - PNH

• Almost certainly from Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *bulan (c.f. Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *bulan). For the semantic shift, see also Fijian vula (“moon; white”).

*'ga.si ("salt") - PNH

• May not actually be reconstructible; reconstruction at PNH level entirely depends upon Voorhoeve's hypothesis that Old West Makian lost initial velars.
• Regardless, from Austronesian (*qasiN) with *N- prefixation.

*'ga.te(r) ("liver") - PNNH

• From Austronesian with *N- prefixation. Compare Proto-Oceanic *qate.

*'gu.tiŋ ("scissors") - PNNH

• We presume this form, but all NH terms seem borrowed from Ternate (except possibly Tidore and Galela). Internally, the most that could be reconstructed (assuming Galela is independently descended) is *'gu.ti.

*'ka.biŋ ("goat") - PNNH

• From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *kambiŋ.

*'ka.wiŋ ("to marry, wed") - PNNH

• From Late Old or Classical Malay kawin, with irregular final ŋ.

*ko.'la.no ~ *'ko.la.n(a) ("king") - PNNH

• Possibly from Old/Middle Javanese kalana (c.f. Javanese klana, from older form kelana), meaning "a fierce character, originally a prince from overseas" and "a wandering adventurer of noble birth from abroad". The initial stress reconstruction may have been borrowed with the final vowel, which would then have been re-interpreted as an echo vowel.

*'lu.suŋ ("mortar") - PNNH

• From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *lusuŋ (“mortar”).

*'ma.ḋek ("ashamed, shy") - PNNH

• Suspiciously similar to Proto-Oceanic *mayaq (“shy”) (from Proto-Austronesian *Seyaq), especially if PNNH *ḋ turns out to be an alveolar.

*'ma.nok ("paniki, kalong, flying fox") - PNNH

• From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *manuk (“bird, chicken”).

*mo.'la.yu(n) ("Malay people") - PNNH

• Reconstructibility depends heavily on whether Modole n is inherited and not an accretion, and the reconstruction level may be even lower than PNNH.

*'p₁a.Lus ("to respond") - PNNH

• And its doublet *'p₂a.Lus.
• Likely from Proto-Austronesian *baləs, but a closer match needs to be found.

*p₁o.la ("house") - PNH

• Suspected to be connected to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *balay, but Proto-Oceanic *pale is a phonetic mismatch (especially compared with other EMP donor terms here).

*p₁o.li ("to buy") - PNH

• From Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *poli, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *bəli. Note also PTAP *boL ("price") (Schapper, et al. 2017).

*'p₂o.ŋo(n/l) ("deaf") - PNH

• From Austronesian. Compare Cebuano bungol.

*rau ("leaf") - PTT

• From Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *raun, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *dahun. Borrowed early enough (into P(N)NH and lost in other branches?) that the final consonant was lost.

*'sa.man ("proa outrigger") - PNNH

• From Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian [Term?]; compare Proto-Oceanic *saman (“outrigger float”).

*'si.Lo ("torch, resin") - PNNH

• Looks very similar to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *suluq, but the first vowel is a mismatch.

*'ta.duk ("horn") - PNH

• From Austronesian (c.f. Indonesian tanduk).

*'to.ḋom ("to be sharp") - PNNH

• Possibly from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *tazəm, through an EMP form.

*'to.p₂ok ("to pierce, stab") - PNNH

• Possibly from Proto-Austronesian *təbək, through an EMP form.

*'u.Li ("to steer; steering wheel") - PTT

• Almost certainly cognate with (if not from) Indonesian kemudi. Compare Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *udəhi.

*'wa.Z(o/u) ("to know") - PNH

• Very, very similar to Old Javanese wruh, Javanese wêruh.

Other External Relations

*'ba.ʔu ("sago") - PSahuic

• Cognate with West Makian baku (“sago”), which Voorhoeve lists as a loan from East Makian baku (“sago, sago tree”). Cognates are not found (yet) in other North Halmaheran languages.

*'bu.L(o/a)ŋ ("white") - PNH

• This term may in fact be only reconstructible to the PNNH level (if West Makian is a borrowing from Ternate, Tidore, or PTT). Teljeur lists South Halmaheran cognates Gane bulang and East Makian bulang, but there's also Sawai mfus, all meaning "white".

*'du.kon ("volcano") - PNNH

• Identical to East Makian dukon (“volcanic eruption”).

*'fa.te ("tree") - PNH

• PTAP *at[eⁱ] ("tree") (Usher 2020); *hate ("tree") (Schapper, et al. 2017). This is probably just a coincidence, as almost no other connections are apparent. The direction of the borrowing would more likely be PNH to PTAP, as the reverse would suggest a PNH form such as **ate or **hate, both of which would become **ate in Ternate and Tidore and **(a/e)te or **h(a/e)te in West Makian.

*ka.'u.na ("dog") - PSahuic

• Likely cognate with Proto-Sangiric *kapuna ("dog"), suggesting an original PSahuic form *ka.'p₁u.na. This would indicate that early PSahuic still had *p₁ as a phoneme, before it developed into *w, and that this process occurred after the change of *k → *ʔ (else we'd see Waioli 'auna).

*'p1o.son ("forbidden, taboo") - PNNH

• Compare with Gane fosan (“taboo”).

*'u.bor ("female (red) eclectus) - PNNH

• Very similar to Kwaio 'ufo'ufo.

*'ʔu.fis (to flow, stream) - PNH

• If PNH /ʔ/ is actually [q], then this might relate to East Makian kihis (“flow, flood”).

*'wa.ŋe(r) ("day, sun") - PNNH

• May be compared to Proto-West Bomberai *waŋg... ("day"), listed by Usher (2020).

Borrowings from NH

• Excluding those from Ternate or Tidore.

*'du.kon ("volcano") - PNNH

• Into East Makian dukon (“to erupt (of a volcano)”). No West Makian term for volcano is listed in the dictionaries; the East Makian term may be from an unattested Old West Makian or from PNNH.

*'ŋo.lot ("sea") - PNH

• Into Sawai wolat, Gane wolat, East Makian wolat ~ olat. The West Makian term may indeed be a reborrowing from South Halmahera (East Makian in particular). Either each South Halmaheran language listed here underwent vowel dissimilation or the original PNH term was in fact *'ŋo.lat, with vowel assimilation in every branch (very plausible).

*p₁a.it or *p₂a.it ("to dig") - PNH

• Into East Makian pait (“to dig”). Whether from Old West Makian (before the loss of the final) or from another branch is uncertain.

*'so.p₁ok ("fruit") - PNH

• Into East Makian sapo, sepo (“fruit”). Likely from Old West Makian or a Pre-Ternate-Tidore form (before *p → *f). Either East Makian underwent vowel dissimilation or the original PNH term was in fact *'sa.p₁ok, with vowel assimilation in every branch (very plausible). Also compare the possible Modole hawo'o.

*'yo.bot ("swollen") - Pre-PTT

• Into North Moluccan Malay yobot (“swollen”), Sawai yobet (“wounded”), (Waigitang-Waikyon) East Makian yobat (“wounded”). PNNH may have had both a *ḋa.bos ("swollen") and *ḋa.bot ("wounded"). Supposing both underwent vowel assimilation in Pre-PTT, it's plausible that both terms merged into a single Pre-PTT *ḋo.bot ("swollen"). Indeed, we have Tidore yobo (“swollen, bruised”) and Ternate hobo (“swollen”), and no distinct, similar-looking word for "wound" in either language. Other NH branches maintain the distinction.

Internal Reconstruction

*kat ("man") - PNH

A direct descendant may be found in West Makian at (following Voorhoeve's postulation that Old West Makian lost initial velars). Additionally, appears in several reconstructed terms: *'ro.kat ("husband"), *'p₁e.kat ("wife"), and *'Co.kat ("evil spirit, ghost, vampire, werewolf").

*ŋo- - PNNH

Some sort of personal prefix. This prefix is found on all the first and second person PNNH pronouns, but also on the term *ŋo.'p₁e.kat ~ *ŋo.p₁o.'ḋe.ka ("wife", "woman"), and possibly on *'ŋo.p₁ak ("child") as well.