Appendix:Proto-Pakanic reconstructions

The following list of 213 reconstructed Proto-Pakanic forms is from Hsiu (2016).

List

No.	Gloss	Proto-Pakanic	Pre-Pakanic	Bolyu	Bugan (Nala)	Bugan (Manlong)
1	hand	*ti		tjɔ3ti3; ti3	tie⁵⁵	tje⁴⁴
2	left	*ɕit	< *cit	ɕit7	pə⁰ɕi̱⁵⁵	pɯ⁵⁵ɕi̱⁵⁵
3	right	*cam		tɕəm3	pə⁰ɕa⁵⁵	pɯ⁵⁵ɕa⁵⁵
4	foot	*ʑoŋʔ	< *ɟoŋʔ	ʑɔŋ3	ʑuŋ³¹	ʑo̱ŋ⁵⁵
5	walk, to	*ɲaʔ		ɲe6	ɲa̱⁵⁵	ɲa̱³¹
6	skin	*ɓuŋ	< *ɓur	mbuŋ3	buŋ⁵⁵/³¹	mboŋ⁵⁵
7	belly	*puŋʔ		puŋ4ɕi5		ɕe⁴⁴po̱ŋ²⁴
8	bone	*ʑaʔ	< *ɟaʔ	pau4ʑe3	ɕa³⁵	ʑa̱²⁴
9	intestines	*ɕɛ	< *cɛ	laːi6ɕi5	ŋguaŋ¹³ɕɛ¹³	ŋguaŋ²⁴ɕe²⁴
10	liver	*ɓuːŋ		mbuːŋ3	bou³¹	mbou³¹
11	breast	*ɲinʔ		ɲin5	nɛ³⁵	nɛ̱⁵⁵ 'milk'
12	fear, to	*ʑu	< *ju	ʑu6	ɕɔ³³	ɕo⁴⁴
13	blood	*saːm		saːm5	sɑ³³	sa⁴⁴
14	head	*ɓuʔ		mbu3	pə⁵⁵bop³¹	mbo̱u³¹
15	hair (of head)	*suk		suk7mbu3	sa̱ŋ⁵⁵	sa̱ŋ³¹mbo̱u³¹
16	feather	*suk		suk7	sa̱ŋ³⁵	sa̱ŋ³¹
17	nose	*maŋʔ		lɔŋ2mi6	pə⁵⁵mã̱³¹	pɯ⁵⁵maŋ³¹
18	smell, to (detect odor)	*tseŋʔ	< *ceŋʔ	tsan5	tsa̱n³⁵	tse̱ŋ²⁴
19	mouth	*tɔk		lɔŋ2tɔk7	tũ̱i⁵⁵	to̱ŋ³¹
20	tongue	*lim		lɔ6lim4	pə⁵⁵lai³³	pu⁵⁵lei⁴⁴
21	laugh, to	*mjoʔ		mi1	mi̱o³¹	mjo̱³¹
22	weep, to	*ʑaːm	< *jaːm	ʑaːm4	ʑɑ³³	ʑa⁴⁴
23	vomit, to	*ʔuːk		ʔu:k7	a̱u⁵⁵	a̱u³¹
24	spit, to	*ɓjoʔ	< ɓroʔ	mbjɔ3	mde̱¹³	bdei²⁴
25	eat, to	*tsɔʔ	< *cɔʔ	tsɔ3	tso̱u³¹	tsṵ³¹
26	cook, to	*taŋ		taŋ3	taŋ³¹	taŋ³¹
27	bite, to	*canʔ	< *camʔ	tɕən5	tsa̱¹³	tɕa̱²⁴
28	ear	*caːiʔ		lɔ6tɕjaːi3	pə⁵⁵tsɛ³⁵	pɯ⁵⁵tɕɛ̱²⁴
29	eye	*mat		ɬaːi5mat8	pə⁵⁵mɛ̱³³	pɯ⁵⁵mɛ̱³¹
30	sleep, to	*ɲaŋʔ		ɲəŋ4	naŋ³³	na̱ŋ⁴⁴
31	dream	*boː		paːu2	mbo³¹	mbo³¹
32	sit, to	*ɲam		ʑam5	ɲa³³	ɲa⁴⁴
33	stand, to	*ɲɔʔ		nau2	ɲɔ̱⁵⁵/¹³	ɲo̱³¹
34	male; man	*pauʔ		qa0puɔ3	pə⁵⁵pau⁵⁵	pɯ⁴⁴po̱u³¹
35	female; woman	*mau		qa0muɔ4	pə⁵⁵mou³³	pɯ⁴⁴mou⁴⁴
36	house	*ɲɔʔ		ɲɔ2	ɲu⁵⁵	ɲo̱u⁵⁵
37	name	*maŋ		mi6	pə⁵⁵maŋ³³	maŋ³¹
38	rope	*caʔ		tɕʰɔ6ʔɔ5	tɕa³³	tɕa̱⁴⁴
39	needle	*gaːp		qaːp8	ŋga̱⁵⁵	ŋga²⁴
40	hunt, to	*ɕuʔ		tsi4hu1	tsɔ̱³¹ɕɔ̱³⁵	dou⁴⁴ɕua̱²⁴
41	shoot, to	*taŋʔ		tɯ2	taŋ³¹	te̱i²⁴
42	pound, to	*tan	< *tam	tan5	tɑn³⁵	ten²⁴
43	throw, to	*vaŋ		vəŋ2	pʰan³¹	pʰen³¹
44	fall, to	*lat		lat8	la̱i⁵⁵	lɛ̱i³¹
45	dog	*tsɔ	< *cɔ	tsu5	tsau³³	tsau⁴⁴
46	bird	*sanʔ		san5	sau³³	sa̱u⁴⁴
47	egg	*tʰam		tʰam1	tʰam³³	tʰen⁵⁵
48	wing	*kaŋ		qaŋ3	kaŋ⁵⁵mba̱n³⁵	kaŋ⁵⁵
49	meat	*ɕjo	< *cjo	ɕjɔ5	ɕu³³	ɕou⁴⁴
50	oil	*ɲi		ɲi4	ɲi³³	ɲi⁴⁴
51	louse	*ben		pi5	mban³³	mbɛn⁴⁴
52	mosquito	*ɲau		ɕaːp7ʑau5	ɲa³¹	ɲua³¹
53	fish	*kɔ		qɔ5	se⁵⁵qou³³	ɕi̱³¹kou⁴⁴
54	leaf	*lɔʔ		lɔ6ʔɔ5	lo̱u¹³	lo̱u²⁴
55	root	*ɣiʔ	< *riʔ	ʑi6	ɣa̱ɯ¹³	ɣɯ²⁴
56	water	*ɗa		nde5	da³⁵	nda²⁴
57	salt	*mjaːn		mjaːn1	mia³¹	mja³¹
58	sky	*kɔ		qɔ3	pə⁰qou⁵⁵	pu⁴⁴ku⁴⁴
59	month	*maːi		maːi1	mai⁵⁵	mei⁴⁴
60	star	*bɔʔ		pau4	bɔ⁵⁵mo³³	mbo̱⁴⁴mo⁴⁴
61	rain	*kʰɔ		qɔ3muɔ2; nde5qo3	kʰou³⁵	kʰau⁵⁵
62	wind	*tʰaŋ		qa3təŋ3	tʰaŋ³⁵	tʰaŋ⁵⁵
63	heavy	*maːiʔ		maːi1	mo̱³¹	mo̱³¹
64	light	*taːnʔ		taːn4	ndɑ̱³³	nda̱⁴⁴
65	smoke	*kui		se5kui5	kui³³	kui⁴⁴
66	ash	*ɓouʔ		mbai3	bo̱u³¹se³¹	mbo̱u³¹
67	big	*tʰɔ		tʰau1	tʰɔ³¹	tʰo³¹
68	thin	*lap		lap10	la̱⁵⁵	lã̱³¹
69	thick	*man		man1	mən³¹	mən³¹
70	narrow	*kɔŋ		kɔŋ3	kʰy⁵⁵	kʰui⁴⁴
71	sick	*ku		qu3	kɔ³¹	ko³¹
72	good	*laːɯ		laːu2	lɯ³¹	lɯ³¹
73	night	*paːiʔ		qa4paːi5	po⁵⁵	po̱³¹
74	daytime	*han		qa3han1	o³³hɛ⁵⁵	ɯ⁴⁴hɛ⁵⁵
75	year	*namʔ		nam1	nam⁵⁵	he̱i³¹
76	this	*ni		ni3	ni³³	nei⁴⁴
77	that	*ɗɔʔ		ndɯ3	dɔ̱¹³
78	near	*ta		to3	ta³¹	dã³¹
79	I	*ʔoːʔ		ʔaːu3	ɔ³¹	o̱³¹
80	you (sg.)	*mɯ		mi2	mɯ³¹	mɯ³¹
81	he/she	*ʔi		ʔi3	i³¹	i³¹
82	we (excl.)	*pai		pai3	pɛ³¹	pɛ³¹
83	you (pl.)	*maːi		maːi2	mi³¹	mei³¹
84	who?	*ɓai		mbai5	bɛ³⁵	mbɛ²⁴
85	one	*mo		mə2	mə⁵⁵; bɔ⁵⁵	bo⁴⁴
86	two	*ɓi		mbi3	biɔ³¹; bi³¹	mbjo³¹
87	three	*paːi		paːi3	ptse³¹	pi³¹
88	four	*puːn		puːn5	pau³³	pau⁴⁴
89	five	*mi		me4	mi³³	mi⁴⁴
90	six	*pjuʔ	< *pruʔ	piu5	pi̱o³³	pjo̱³¹
91	seven	*peiʔ		pei3	po̱u³¹	po̱u³¹
92	eight	*saːmʔ		saːm5	sã³³	sa̱⁴⁴
93	nine	*ɕinʔ	< *cinʔ	ɕən5	ɕi³³	ɕi̱⁴⁴
94	ten	*maːn	< *maːl	maːn2	mã³¹	ma³¹
95	hundred	*ʑɔ	< *ɟɔ	mə0ʑɔ2	ʑiu³¹	ʑou³¹
96	gold	*hiʔ		hi3	hi̱³⁵	he̱i²⁴
97	iron	*luːn		luːn2	lou³³	lou⁴⁴
98	pig	*tan		tan5	tau³³	tau²⁴
99	tiger	*kuiʔ		kui5	tə̱⁵⁵qɔ̱³³tʰɔ⁵⁵	tɯ⁵⁵qo̱⁴⁴
100	horse	*laŋʔ		ljiŋ2	lã³¹; laŋ³¹	la̱ŋ³¹
101	cattle	*laiʔ		lai1	li⁵⁵	le̱i⁵⁵
102	pangolin	*ɓoːʔ		mbaːu3	bo³¹	mbo̱³¹
103	ant	*ɣen	< *gen	ɣan2	ɣen³¹	ɣeŋ³¹
104	grasshopper	*dzaːn	< *dzaːr < *caːr	muɔ4tsjaːn4	ndza³³	ɲdʑa⁴⁴se̱n³¹
105	tree	*saːɯʔ		saːu3	saɯ³¹	sɯ̱³¹
106	sugarcane	*ʔɔŋ		ʑe3pai3	ʔɔŋ¹³	oŋ²⁴pjo²⁴
107	bamboo shoot	*ɓaŋʔ		mbɔŋ3	baŋ³¹	mba̱ŋ³¹
108	vegetables	*tʰuʔ		tu3	tʰu⁵⁵	tʰu̱⁴⁴
109	face	*pʰja		ɬe1	ptsʰa³³	pʰtsʰa⁴⁴
110	die, to	*pja:t		ɬiːt7	ptsa⁵⁵	ptsa̱³¹
111	fruit	*pjeːiʔ		ɬa:i5ʔɔ5	ptse̱³³	ptsei⁴⁴
112	snake	*kaŋ		ɬaŋ3	qaŋ³⁵	qaŋ⁵⁵
113	steal, to	*ɕenʔ	< *cenʔ	ɕən5	se̱n³⁵	ɕin²⁴
114	excrement	*ʔiʔ		ʔi5	a̱i³³	ai⁴⁴
115	urine	*t-caːŋ		tjaːŋ4	tsʰə³¹	tɕʰɯ³¹
116	fart	*saːŋ		sjaːŋ5	sa³³	sa⁴⁴
117	snow	*cimʔ		qa3tɕim5	te⁵⁵tsi³³	ti⁵⁵tɕi̱⁴⁴
118	field	*tiʔ		mat8ti3	ta̱ɯ³⁵	tɯ̱²⁴
119	well	*loŋ		lɔŋ2nde5	luŋ³³da³⁵	loŋ⁴⁴
120	flea	*mjo		mjɔ2	miou³¹	mjau³¹
121	taro	*xɔ	< *rɔ	muɔ4hu5; ɬaːi5hu5	ɲa³³xau³³	ɲa⁴⁴hau⁴⁴
122	melon	*tanʔ		ɬaːi5tan5	te⁵⁵ta̱n³³ 'pumpkin'	ti⁵⁵den⁴⁴
123	bean	*tuk		tuk8	toŋ⁵⁵	ndo̱ŋ³¹
124	mushroom	*pʰaːŋ		pʰjaːŋ6	pʰa³³	pʰa⁴⁴
125	lips	*ban		pan2	man³¹	men³¹
126	navel	*sanʔ		lɔŋ2san5	pə⁵⁵san³³	pɯ⁵⁵se̱n⁴⁴
127	road	*koŋ		kɔ5	ho⁵⁵tɕu³³	xoŋ⁴⁴tɕou⁴⁴
128	fox	*kʰaːn		qaːn5		tei⁵⁵qʰa⁴⁴
129	sweet	*lim		lim5	lɛi³³	lai⁴⁴
130	sour	*p-cat		tsjat7	ptsɛ³¹	pje³¹
131	bitter	*caŋʔ		tɕaŋ5	tsaŋ³³	tsa̱ŋ⁴⁴
132	spicy	*ɲam		ɲam2		ŋo⁴⁴
133	salty	*ŋam		ŋam2	ŋa³³	ŋa⁴⁴
134	drunk	*caŋ		ɕaːn3tɕjuŋ5	ɕa³¹	ɕa³¹
135	medicine	*suʔ		su3	sɔ³¹	so̱³¹
136	door	*coŋʔ		tɔk7tɕɔŋ2	ŋa⁵⁵ʑu̱ŋ³¹	ŋa⁴⁴ɲdʑoŋ³¹
137	pillar	*ɣaŋ	< *raŋ	muɔ4ɣaŋ2	ɣaŋ³¹	ɣaŋ³¹
138	trousers	*pɛʔ		pi3	pɛ̱¹³	pɛ̱²⁴
139	shoes	*nauʔ		nau6	na̱u⁵⁵	na̱u³¹
140	cloth	*nen		nən4	nen³³	nen⁴⁴
141	clothing	*peʔ		pʰje1	pɯ̱⁵⁵lio̱³¹	bi⁴⁴
142	umbrella	*laŋ		ljiŋ1		laŋ⁴⁴
143	arrow	*ɓa		mbɔ3 'bow'	sa⁵⁵	nau⁴⁴mbou⁴⁴
144	suona	*limʔ		le3ljim5		le̱n³¹
145	dinner	*paːiʔ		qʰe1paːi5	tso̱u⁵⁵po̱³¹	po³¹
146	speech	*to		tɔ2	to⁵⁵	to⁴⁴
147	grave	*lap		lap8	mə⁰lo̱u³¹	mu⁴⁴lau³¹
148	strength	*ɣək	< *rək	ɣək8		ɣo⁴⁴
149	beam	*tsoʔ	< *coʔ	ʑe3tso3	tso̱u¹³ɲiu¹³ 'beam wood'	tso²⁴ɲo̱u⁵⁵
150	village	*gɔ		qɔ2	ŋqu³³	ŋgu⁴⁴
151	drum	*buŋʔ		puŋ2lai6	bam³⁵	mbe̱n²⁴
152	gong	*tsanʔ		tsuŋ2tsan2		tse̱i⁴⁴
153	blow, to	*pʰu		pʰu1	pʰɔ³¹	pʰɔ³¹
154	burn, to (intr.)	*ɗɔʔ		ndau5	tɔ̱¹³	to̱⁴⁴ (of fire); ndo⁴⁴ (of mountains)
155	green	*ɕaŋ	< *caŋ	ɕaŋ3	ɕaŋ³¹	ɕaŋ³¹
156	bed	*ɲaŋʔ		kɔ5ɲəŋ4	hɔŋ¹³naŋ³³	xɔŋ⁵⁵na̱ŋ⁴⁴
157	pond, pool	*kau		nde5ɣau2	kʰɯ³⁵ 'large pond'	kau³¹
158	cave	*loŋ		lɔŋ2tɔ5	loŋ³³	loŋ⁴⁴
159	muntjac	*koŋ		kɔŋ5	tɕioŋ³³	tɕoŋ⁴⁴
160	eagle	*laːŋʔ		muɔ4ljaːŋ4	lou³⁵	lo̱u²⁴
161	centipede	*xaŋ	< *raŋ	hə6	se³¹xaŋ⁵⁵; ptsi³¹xaŋ⁵⁵; pə⁰ta⁵⁵	pi³¹haŋ⁵⁵
162	claw	*cjoʔ		tjai6	bia̱ŋ³⁵; pə⁰tɕiu⁵⁵	pu⁴⁴tɕo̱³¹
163	ginger	*cɯŋʔ		tɕəŋ3	tsʰɯ¹³	tɕʰɯ̱²⁴
164	millet	*saŋ		saŋ5	saŋ³³	saŋ⁴⁴
165	ears (of grain)	*kaːn		qaːn5		qa²⁴
166	thorn	*pɔk		pɔk7	paŋ⁵⁵	pa̱ŋ³¹
167	body	*ɓaŋ		mbu3mbaːi5	baŋ³³	mbaŋ⁴⁴
168	chin	*keːŋ		laːp8qeːŋ5	la⁰kə³³	ti³¹kɯ⁴⁴
169	fist	*bau		pau4tsʰap10		tje⁴⁴mbou⁴⁴
170	chest	*nuʔ		qɔ4ni6	ha⁵⁵nu̱³¹	xa̱⁵⁵nou³¹
171	stomach	*ɗoŋ		ndan3	tai³¹	loŋ⁵⁵
172	pus	*tuŋʔ		tuŋ3	tɔ̱ŋ³⁵	toŋ⁴⁴
173	orphan	*nɔ		qa0nɔ6	ɲa³³nou³³	ɲa⁴⁴nou⁴⁴
174	blanket	*paːmʔ		paːm2		pa̱²⁴
175	axe	*kun		kʰun1	bou³¹kan¹³	ken⁴⁴
176	plow	*coŋ		tɕɔŋ2	tɕuŋ³³	tɕoŋ⁴⁴
177	drill	*tsoŋ	< *coŋ	tsɔŋ2	tsoŋ⁵⁵	tsoŋ⁴⁴
178	basket	*ɗaːiʔ		ndaːi5		ta̱i³¹
179	candle	*kɔ		qaːn2qɔ3	qou³⁵	ku²⁴
180	ink	*mak		mak8		ma̱ŋ³¹
181	lick, to	*lɛmʔ		ljim4	lɛ¹³	lɛ̱²⁴
182	twist, to (a rope)	*pʰja		pʰjaːi1		pʰja³¹
183	wring, to (a towel)	*pat		pjit7	pa̱³⁵	pa̱³¹
184	run, to	*kʰaːt		qaːt8	qʰa̱i⁵⁵	qʰe̱i³¹
185	carry on back, to	*paʔ		pe5	pa̱³³/³⁵	pua²⁴
186	sell, to	*seːi		saːi3	se³¹	sei³¹
187	steam, to	*kʰoː		qʰaːu4		kʰau³¹
188	scoop, to (water)	*kʰoːʔ		qaːu3		kʰo̱²⁴
189	wash, to	*laːi		laːi4	le¹³	li⁴⁴
190	comb, to	*tsi		tse4	tsi³¹	tɕi³¹
191	weave, to (basket)	*taːn		taːn3		da³¹
192	answer, to	*ʔoʔ		ʔiu3		o̱³¹
193	borrow, to (money)	*ɗan		ndan5		nda²⁴
194	give, to	*ti		tɔ5	ta̱³⁵ti⁵⁵	ti⁵⁵
195	divide, to	*sanʔ		san5	sa̱i³⁵	sei²⁴
196	go, to	*ʑɔʔ	< *ɟɔʔ	ʑu2	jau³¹	ʑa̱u³¹
197	soak, to	*taŋ		təŋ3		daŋ²⁴
198	float, to	*buʔ		pu2	mbou³¹	po̱u³¹
199	split, to (intr.)	*ɓɛnʔ		mbjɔ5		mbɛ̱n⁴⁴; bjaŋ²⁴
200	turn, spin, to	*vanʔ		pin³³	va̱n³⁵	ve̱n³¹
201	lay, to (egg)	*ten		tu4		tʰen³¹
202	tall	*ɣoʔ	< *roʔ	ʑɔu4	ɣo³³	ɣo̱⁴⁴
203	deep	*kau		ɣau2	kou³¹	kau³¹
204	straight (not crooked)	*pjoʔ		pjai3	pio³¹	pjo̱³¹
205	gray	*luːk		luːk8		lu³¹
206	raw (meat)	*ʔɔ		ʔau5	ɔ³³; ɲu³³	o⁴⁴
207	stinky	*tseŋʔ	< *ceŋʔ	tsan5	tsa̱n³³	tse̱ŋ⁴⁴
208	classifier (general)	*buːŋ		puːŋ3		mbou⁴⁴
209	pair	*tsom	< *com	tsɔu4	tsam³³	tsen²⁴
210	double	*caːŋ		tɕjaːŋ2		tɕaŋ⁵⁵
211	just now	*cɯŋ		tɕəŋ5mbaːi5		tɕɯ³¹
212	also, too	*le		le2		lɛ²⁴
213	no, not	*mau		mau4	mə⁵⁵	mɯ⁵⁵

References

• Hsiu, Andrew. 2016. A preliminary reconstruction of Proto-Pakanic. Chiang Mai: Payap University.
• Li, Xulian [李旭练]. 1999. A Study of Lai (Bolyu) [倈语硏究]. Beijing: Minzu University Press [中央民族大学出版社].
• Li, Yunbing [李云兵]. 2005. A study of Bugeng [Bugan] [布赓语研究]. Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House [民族出版社].
• Li, Jinfang [李锦芳]. 2006. Studies on endangered languages in the Southwest China [西南地区濒危语言调查研究]. Beijing: Minzu University.