Appendix:Proto-Dravidian reconstructions

The following Proto-Dravidian reconstructions are from Krishnamurti (2003) and Southworth (2005).

Krishnamurti (2003)

Proto-Dravidian reconstructions from Krishnamurti (2003) are as follows.

Abbreviations

→	Sub-entries that are given under lemmas [main entries] (which are entries directly above that are not marked by →)
V	vowel
Vb	main verb
v.t.	transitive verb
v.i.	intransitive verb
SD	Southern Dravidian
SD I	Southern Dravidian (branch I)
SD II	Southern Dravidian (branch II)
CD	Central Dravidian
ND	Northern Dravidian

Lexicon

Proto-Dravidian	Glosses and notes	cf.
*akam	‘inside’
→ *aka-ppaṭu	‘to be included’
*akaẓ-tt-ay	‘moat’
*akka-	‘elder sister’
*añc-	‘to fear’
→ *añc-al, añc-c(-am)	n. ‘fear’ SD I, Te.
*aṭ-a-nk-	‘be compressed, hidden’
→ *aṭ-a-nkk-	v.t. ‘to control, hide’ PSD
*aṭ-a-ppay	‘betel pouch’
*aṭ-ay-kkāy	‘areca nut’ SD I
*aṭ-V	‘foot, bottom, base’ SD I
→ *aṭ-Vk-	‘foot, bottom, base’ SD II, CD
*aṭṭu	‘pancake’
*aṇ-ṭṭ-	‘to adhere, stick’
*aṇṇa-	‘elder brother’
*aṯ-V-	‘to know’
*aṯṯ-/*āṯṯ-	‘that place, manner’
*a-tu	3neu sg SD I
*atta-	‘maternal/paternal aunt’
*a-n(V)k- ~ *ā-n(V)k/-t- ~ *-tt-	‘that place/time/much/many/manner’
*a-nV	‘there, then’
*a-nṯu	‘that day, then’ SD I
*appa-	‘father’
*app-am	‘rice cake’
*ap-pōẓ	‘that time, then’
*amp-ali	‘porridge’ SD II
*ampu	‘arrow’
*amp-i	‘boat’
*a-mpV	‘there’ PSD
*amm-a	‘mother’
*ayy-a	‘father’
*ar-ac/-aḷ	‘pipal tree’
*ar-i	‘a kind of tax’
*ar-Vṇṭṭi	‘banana, plantain’ SD II
*al-	‘to be not’ SD I
*al-a-nk-	‘to shake’
*a-l(l)V	‘that place’
*aw-anṯu	‘he, that man’ 3m sg (nom)
→ *awan-	‘he, that man’ obl.
*aw-aḷ	3f sg SD I
*aww-a	‘mother, grandmother’
*aḷ-amp-	‘mushroom’
*aḷ-V-kk-	‘to sacrifice’
*aẓ-i-	‘to perish’
→ *aẓ-i-ntt-	past transitive
→ *aẓ-i-mpp	non-past transitive
*aH-/*ā	‘that’ (distal)
→ *a-tu	‘she/it’ (hum f and non-hum)
→ *aw-anṯu	‘he’ (hum m)
→ *aw-ay	‘they’ (non-men/non-hum)
→ *aw-ar	‘men/persons’ (hum)
→ *aw-aḷ	‘she’ (hum f)
*aHn- (> a(y)n- > e(y)n- > i (y)n-, ān-)	‘to say’; quotative marker
*ā-	‘to be, become’
→ *ā-k-	‘to be’
→ *ā-kk-	‘to make’
→ *ān-/*an-	‘to be’
→ *ā-p-	‘to become’
→ *ā-pp-	‘to make’
*āṭ-u	‘to play, dance’; n. āṭṭ-u (< *āṭ + t-)
*āṯ-	‘to become cool, to dry up’
*āṯ(ṯ)-	1pl incl nom
*ānt-ay	‘owl’ SD I
*ā(m/n)-	‘cow’
*āy	‘mother’
*ār-āy	‘to investigate’
→ *ār-āy-cci	‘research’ PSD I
*ār/*ar-ak-	‘millet’
*āl	‘banyan tree’
*āḷ	‘man/woman’
*iṭ-u- (iṭ-ṭ-)	‘to put, place’
*iṯ-ay-cci	‘meat’
*in-	adj./n. ‘sweet’
*i-nṯu	‘today, now’
*ir-	‘to be’ (copular verb) SD I
→ *ir-u-wu	‘a place to be’ SD II
*ir-u-ppay	‘mahua tree’, Bassia longifolia
*ir-Vl/*w	‘liver’ SD I
*il	‘house’
*iẓi-	‘to descend’
→ *iẓi-nt-	past intransitive
→ *iẓi-ntt-	past transitive
→ *iẓi-(m)p-	non-past intransitive
→ *iẓi-(m)pp-	non-past transitive
*iH-/*ī	‘this’ (proximal)
→ *ītu	‘this thing/woman’
→ *iw-anṯu	‘this man’
→ *iw-ay	‘these things/women’
→ *iw-ar	‘these men/persons’
→ *iw-aḷ	‘this woman’
*ī	‘fly’
*īr/*ir-V	‘two’
→ *ir-aṇ-ṭu	‘two’ (3n-m pl)
→ *iru-war	‘two persons’
*īẓam	‘toddy’
→ *īẓa-wanṯ-	‘toddy-tapper’ SD I
*ukir	‘finger nail, toe-nail’ SD I
→ *gōr/*kōr	‘finger nail, toe-nail’ SD II, CD, Br.
→ *or-kk-	‘finger nail, toe-nail’ Kur–Malt
*uc-V-	‘to breathe’
→ *uc-Vr	‘to breathe’
*uṭ-ump-	‘iguana’
*uṇ-	‘to drink’
*uram-kkal	‘grinding stone, pestle’
*ur-ay	‘to rub’
*ula-kk-V	‘pestle’
*uḷ-	‘to be, to have’
→ *uṇṭ-u (< *uḷ-nt-)	‘is, are’
*uḷḷ-am	‘mind, the inside one’	see uḷu
*uḷḷi	‘onion’
*uẓ-untu	‘black gram’
*uẓ-u-pp-	‘stag, deer’
*uẓ-uw-	‘tiger’ SD II
*uẓ-V-	‘to plough’
→ *uẓ-a-tti	‘farming’
*uHṇ-/*ūṇ- (past uṇ-ṭ-, uṇ-ṭṭ-)	‘to eat, drink’
→ *ūṭṭ- (< *uHṇ-tt-)	‘to give to eat or drink’
*uH/*ū	‘yonder’
*ū/*uy	‘meat’
*ūr	‘habitation, village, town’
*eṇ	‘to count’
*eṇ	adj. ‘eight’
→ *eṇ-ṭṭu	‘eight’ (3n-m pl)
*eṯ-ay-anṯu	‘chief, king’
*eṯ-V-	‘red’ PSD II
*eṯ-V-y	‘prawn’
*enk-	‘to remain, be left over’
→ *enk-al	‘left over food’ (palatalization in SD I + Konda as eñc-)
*en-ṯ-	‘sun’
*er-utu	‘ox’
*er-umV-	‘buffalo’
*el-ay	‘leaf’ PSD
*el-i	‘rat’
*el, en-ṯu	‘sunshine, sun’
*el-V-mp/-nk	‘bone’
*elli	‘tomorrow’ (Tu., Te.?, Br.)
*ell-V	‘all’
*eḷ-V-	‘young, tender’
*eḷ-V-ñc-	‘black bear’
*eẓ-V	adj. ‘seven’
→ *ēẓ	‘seven’ (3n-m pl)
*ēk-/*eHk-	‘to gin cotton’
*ēṯu	‘ox, bull’
*ēl	‘mind, reason, knowledge’
*ēl-V-	‘cardamom’
*ēẓ/*eẓ-V-	‘to spin’
*o-	‘to be suitable’
→ o-kk-, o-pp-, o-mp-, o-ww-	incorporated tense-transitivity suffixes
→ *okku-	‘to be together’
→ *okk-al	‘relatives’
*ok-Vr, kō-r	‘finger/toe nail’
*okk-	‘one’ CD, Tel.
*oṭ-ay	‘to break’ PSD
*oṭ-al	‘body’ PSD
*oṭ-unku	‘to be restrained’
*oṭ-Vkk-	‘chameleon’
*oṯ-a-nku	‘to sleep’ PSD
*on-ṯu	‘one’
*on-patV	‘ten minus one’
*oy-	‘to carry’
*oḷ-an	‘house’ Pre-Gondi	see uḷ- ‘to be’
*oẓ-ukk-	‘to spin’
*ōṭu	v.i. ‘to flee’
→ *ōṭṭ-am	‘defeat’
*ōtu	‘to recite, read’
*ōntti	‘bloodsucker lizard’
*ōr-/*or-V-	adj. ‘one’
*kac (> kay)	‘to be bitter’; n. ‘bitterness’
*kañci	‘gruel’
*kaṭ-/*kaṭṭ-	‘to tie, bind’
*kaṭṭ-ay	n. ‘a dam’
*kaṭ-ac-	‘male of cattle, heifer’
*kaṭ-ampu	Anthocephalus cadamba
*kaṭ-ay	‘end, place’
*kaṭ-al	‘sea, ocean’
*kaṭ-V-	‘be bitter, pungent’
*kaṭ-V-	‘wild buffalo’
*kaṭ-V-ñcc/-ntt	‘stag’
*kaṇ	‘eye’
→ *kaṇ-ṇīr	‘tear’
*kaṇṭ-anṯu	‘husband, warrior’ SD I
*katti	‘knife’
*kan-acV	‘dream, to dream’
*kap- ~ *kapp-/*kaw-V	‘to cover’
*kapp-a	‘frog’
*kapp-am	‘a kind of tax, tribute’
*kapp-al	‘ship, boat’
*kap-Vḷ	‘cheek’
*kam-kuẓi	‘armpit’
*kay	‘hand, arm’
*kay-tay	‘fragrant screw-pine’
*kay-tVkk-	‘fragrant screw-pine’
*kay-m- (> key-m-)	‘field’
*kay-V-l/-kk-/-mpp-	‘fish of different kinds’
*kar-umpu	‘sugar-cane’ SD I
*kar-Vḷ	‘bowels’
*kar-Vnk	Pongamia glabra
*kar-V-nt-	‘to consider, intend’
→ *kar-V-ntt	n. ‘will, mind’ SD I + Te.
*kar-Vnti	‘red gram’
*kal	‘stone’
*kal-/*kaṯ-	‘to learn’
*kala-kala	onom. of ‘rustle, tinkle, rattle’
*kal-a-nku	‘to be stirred’
→ *kal-a-nkku	‘to stir’ PSD
*kal-Vnk-	‘covered drain, sluice’ SD
*kal-ac-	‘to quarrel’
*kal-am	‘boat, ship’
*kaw-Vḷi	‘a house lizard’
*kaḷ-am/-an	‘an open place (threshing floor, battle ground)’
*kaẓ-ut-ay	‘donkey’
*kaẓ-u-tt-	‘neck/throat’ SD I
→ *kaẓ-nt(t)-	Tu., CD, SD II
*kaḷ	‘toddy’
*kaḷ-/*kaṇ-	‘to steal’
*kaẓi (-nt-)	v.i. ‘time to pass, be spent’
→ *(-nt-t-)	v.t. ‘to spend, waste, reject’ PSD
*kaẓ-V-ku/-tu	‘eagle’
*kaẓ-Vt	‘paddy field’
*kā-kk-ay	‘crow’
*kāṇ- (< *kaHṇ-)	‘to see’
*kāṇ-ikk-ay	‘gift’
*kāṯ-	‘plough-share’
*kā(-tt-)	‘to protect, guard’
*kā(-n), kā-ṭu	‘forest’
*kā, kā-n-, kā-ṭV	n. ‘forest’
*kā-nk-	‘big clay pot’
*kāy	‘fruit, pod’
*kāy, kā-nku	v.i. ‘to be hot, dry up, burn’
→ *kā-nkku	v.t. ‘to be hot, dry up, burn’
→ *kā-ntu	v.i. ‘to be hot, dry up, burn’
→ *kā-nttu	v.t. ‘to be hot, dry up, burn’
→ *kā-mpu	v.i. ‘to be hot, dry up, burn’
→ *kā-mppu	v.t. ‘to be hot, dry up, burn’
*kār/*kar-V	‘dark, black, dark clouds’
*kāl	‘canal’
*kāl	‘leg, foot’
*kā-waṭi	‘shoulder pole’
*kic-ampu > kiy-ampu > kī-mpu/*kē-mpu	‘yam’, Arum colocasia	see kē-mpu
*kic-Vkic-V	onom. ‘chirping, squeaking’
*kiṇṭ-V-	‘metal pot’
*kiṯ-u-tt-/-mp-	‘cheetah, panther’
*kiṯṯ-eli	‘mouse’
*kin-	‘to be angry’ PSD I
*kir-V-	‘ear’ (some languages of SD I and II)
*kil-	‘sound, noise’ PSD
*kil-	‘to be able’ SD I
*kil-/*kiṯ-	‘small’
*kil-a	‘some’
*kiḷi	‘parrot’
*kiẓ-ank-	‘tuber, root’ SD I	see kīẓ/kiẓ-V
*kī-ṯ	‘scratch’
*kīṯ-/*kiṯ-V	‘small’
*kīw/*kiw-V-	‘snow, ice’
*kīẓ/*kiẓ-V-kk	‘below’; ‘low; area, east’ SD I
*kucc-/*kuc-V-	‘greens’
*kuṭ-al	‘intestines’ SD I
*kuṭ-V/*kuṇṭ-V	‘eyeball’
*kuṇṭV	‘heart, kidney’
*kuṯ-ay- (kuṯ-ay-nt-, kuṯ-ay-ntt-)	‘to be reduced in size’
*kuṯ-V	‘short’ PSD
*kuṯ-V-nk-/-w	‘thigh’ SD I
*kut-i	‘to jump’
→ *kut-ir-ay	‘horse’ SD I
*kut-V-	‘club’
*kunṯ-am/-u	‘hill’
*kunṯ-i	‘crab's eye, a plant’
*kun-tāl/-tāḷ	‘pick-axe’
*ku-nt-/*ntt- ~ *ko-nt-/*ntt-	‘throat, voice, tone’ SD I, SD II
*kupp-V	‘heap’
*kur-uṭu	‘blindness’
*kur-V-c-	‘deer’
*kur-Vwi	‘small pot’
*kur-V-wi	‘sparrow’
*kuḷ-am/-Vnc-	‘lake’
*kuẓ-V	‘pit, hollow’
*kūṭ-u	v.i. ‘to be joined, meet’
→ *kūṭṭ- (< *kūṭ-tt)	v.t. ‘to unite, put together’
→ *kūṭṭ-am	n. ‘union’
→ *kūṭ-al	‘joining’
→ *kūṭṭ-al	‘uniting’ PSD
*kūṭ-u	‘nest’
*kūnt(t)-	‘mushroom’
*kūn-ttu/-ccu/-kku	‘daughter’
*kūm-/*kum-V-	‘pigeon, dove’
*kū-r-	‘to sleep’
*kūl-i	‘paddy’
*kūẓ	‘porridge’
*kec-aṯ-	‘mud, slush’
*keṭ-u	‘to perish, decay’
→ *kēṭu	n. ‘damage’ (< *keHṭu)
→ *keṭ-al	‘evil’
→ *keṭu-ti	n. ‘ruin’
→ *keṭ-ṭa	‘evil’
*keṯ-ay/-uwu	‘tank’
*keṯ-V-	‘wing, feather’ PSD
*kep-	‘to tell, scold’
→ *kew-i	‘ear’
→ *kew-iṭu	‘deafness’
*kem	‘red’
*kem-pu	‘copper vessel’	see kem
*key-	‘to do’
*key-(a)m	‘wet field’
*key-pi-	‘to cause one to do’	see keyker-uppu ‘sandal’
*kew-i	‘ear’	see kepke
*keḷ-ay	‘to dig up’
*kēṯ-	‘to winnow’
→ *kēṯ-ṯV	n. ‘winnowing basket’
*kē-mpu (< *key-ampu < *kic-ampu)	‘yam’ PSD	see kic-ampu
*kēḷ-/*kēṇ-	‘to hear, ask’
*koc-V-	‘pot-making’
*koṭ-ay	‘umbrella’
*koṭ-Vkku	‘west’
*koṭṭ- ~ *koṭ-	‘to beat’
*koṭṭay	‘stone of fruit’
*koṯ-a	‘to become short’
*koṯ-aṇṭ-/-añc-	‘henna’ Barleria sp.
*koṯ-ay	‘to pierce’ PSD
*koṯ-i	‘sheep’
*koṯ-u	‘chicken’ SD II
*koṯ-V	‘a kind of millet’
*koy-	‘to cut, harvest crop’
*kor-Vnk-/-nkk-	‘a stork, crane’
*kor-V-nkk-/-ntt-	‘monkey’
*kol	‘smithy’
*kol-	‘to kill’
*koḷ-/*koṇ-	‘to receive, buy’; reflexive marker
*koẓ-utt-V	‘new’
*kō/*kō-n-ṯu	‘king, mountain’
*kōṭ-u	‘horn’
→ *kōṯ-	‘horn’ SD II
*kōṭṭ-ay	‘fort’
*kōṭ-ay	‘west wind, monsoon’ PSD I
*kōn-yāṯu	‘temple tank, open well’	see kō-
*kōy-il	‘palace, temple’ (King’s/God’s abode) PSD
*kōl	‘stick, plough-shaft’
*kōẓ/*koẓ-V	‘new, young, tender’
*kōẓ-/*koẓ-V	‘son, young one’
*kōẓi	‘chicken’
*caṭa-ppī	‘cowdung’ (lit. bullock’s excrement)
*caṭVcaṭV	‘cracking sound’
*caṭṭi	‘small pot’
*caṯ-V	adj. ‘six’
→ *cāṯ-u	‘six’ (3n-m pl)
*cat-V-	‘to read’ Pre-Te.
*cam-V-	‘to be made, to form’
*cay-m-	adj. ‘five’
→ *cay-m-tu	‘five’ (3n-m pl)
*car-ac-	‘snake’ PSD
*cal-/*can- (can-ṯ- < *cal-nt- PSD I, can-ṯṯ- PSD II)	‘to go, pass, occur’
*caḷ-/*caṇ-	‘cool, cold’
*caḷ-V-	‘buttermilk’
*caH- ~ *ceH- (past ca-tt-/*ce-tt-)	‘to die’
→ *caH-/*cā-	‘to die’ PSD
→ *cay-/*cāy-	‘to die’ PCD
→ *keH-/*key-	‘to die’ PND
*cār-/*cēr-	‘to go reach’
*cāl	‘ploughed furrow’
*cāḷ-iy-anṯu	‘nephew/son-in-law’
*cāl-Vy-anṯu	‘weaver’
*cinki, cinki-wēr	‘ginger’
*cin-tta	‘tamarind’
*ciy-/*cī-	‘to give’
*cir-	‘black’
→ *cir-a-, cir-V-ḷ/-nk-	‘darkness’
→ *cir-umpu	‘black metal/iron’
*cir	‘day’ CD
*cir-V-tt-	‘the low area, east’ SD I
*cil-	‘to be not’
*cīk-kāy	‘soapnut’
*cīn-kk-	‘darkness’
*cīn-t(t)-V-	‘date palm’
*cī-p/*cay-pp-	‘sweeping broom’
*cīr-ppī	‘nits’ (lit. lice eggs) PSD
*cukk-V	‘star’
*cup/*cow-ar	‘salt’ SD II
→ *up/*ow-ar	‘salt’ SD I, Te.
*cum-V-	‘to carry on head’; n. ‘head-pad’
*cuw-	‘pipal tree’
*cūṭ-/*cuṭ-V-	‘be hot, burn’
→ cut-	‘be hot, burn’ SD II
*cūr/*cur-V-	‘to curl up’
*cū-ẓ	‘to see, deliberate’
*ceṯ-ank-/-ankk-	‘wing’
*ceṯ-Vkk-	‘sugar-cane’ SD II
*cey-t-/*coy-t-	‘porcupine’
*cer-	‘to insert’
*cēr	‘plough yoked to oxen’
*cēl-āḷ	‘younger sister’ SD II
*coṭ-	‘to drip’
*coṭṭ-V	‘lame’
*coṯ-ac-	‘shark’
*col-	‘to speak, relate’
*col-(ay)	‘fireplace’
*cōṭ-	‘to run’
→ *cōṭ-am	‘boat’
*ñaṇṭ-	‘crab’
*ñam-V-l	‘peacock/peahen’
*ñam-kō l	‘plough, our stick’
*ñāc-Vṯu	‘sun’ SD I
*ñāṇ/*ñēṇ	‘string, cord’
*ñāṯu	‘seedlings for transplantation’
*ñāṯu	‘to emit smell’
*ñānṯ-V-	Eugenia jambolana
*ñān-ṯu/*ñēn-ṯu	‘day, time, today’ PSD
*ñā-n/*ñan-	‘I’ (1sg nom/obl innovated in PSD)
*ñām/*ñam-	‘we’ (1pl incl)
*takar	‘ram’
*taṭṭ-/*taṭ-V-	‘measles’
*taṇ	adj. ‘cool, cold’
*taṇṭ-al	‘boatman’
*tan-tay/*tan-ṯi	‘father’
*tapa-tapa/*daba-daba	onom. ‘walking fast’
*tam-kay	‘younger sister’
*tamp-V-	‘younger brother’
*tar-/*tā- (< *taH-r -/*taH-, neg. and pos.)	‘to give to 1st or 2nd person’
*tar-V-	‘to churn buttermilk’
*tal-ay	‘head, hair, top’
*taḷḷ-ay/-i	‘mother’
*taẓ-Vnk-/-nkk	‘liver’
*tā-ṇṭu	‘to dance, jump’
*tātt-a	‘grand father’
*tān/*tan- (< *taHn-)	‘self’ (3refl sg), emphatic particle SD I
*tānṯi	Beleric myrobalan
*tāli	‘wedding string with a gold piece’ SD I, Te.
*tāẓ	‘palmyra tree’
*tāẓ-waṭam	‘a string of beads/pearls’
*tiṯ-V-	‘to open’
*tink-aḷ	‘moon’ SD I
*tiy-am	‘honey’
*tirV-	‘be changed’
→ *tir-ay	‘to roll’
→ *tir-a-nku	‘be curled up’
→ *tir-a-nkku	‘to shrivel up’
→ *tir-i (-v-, -nt-)	v.i. ‘to turn’
→ *(-pp-, -ntt-)	v.t. ‘to turn’
→ *tir-u-ku, tir-u-mpu	v.i. ‘to twist’
→ *tir-u-kku, tir-u-mppu	v.t. ‘to twist’
→ *tir-u-ntu	v.i. ‘to be corrected’
→ *tir-u-nttu	v.t. ‘to correct’
→ *tir-uḷ	‘to turn’
*tirV-kal	‘a hand-mill’
*tiHn- (past tin-ṯ-/*tin-ṯṯ-)	‘to eat’
→ *tī-nṯṯ-	‘to feed’
*tuñc-	‘to sleep’
*tuḷ-acV	‘sacred basil’
*tuw-Vṯ-	‘to drizzle’
*tuw-Vr	‘coral’
*tū-nk-	v.i. to swing’
→ *tū-nkk-	v.t. ‘to swing’
*tēr	‘chariot’ SD
*tēr/*ter-V-	‘to become clear, to know’
*ten, teṯ-kku	‘south’
*tepp-V-	‘float’
*teḷ-V-	‘white, clear’; v. ‘to become clear, to know’
*tēṯṯ-	‘to recover’
*tē- (< *tew-i-)	‘be full, satiated’
*tē- (< *tiy-a)	‘sweet’ PSD
*tēn-ī	‘honey-bee’ (lit. honey-fly) SD I
*tēn-kk-	‘teak’
*tēḷ	‘scorpion’
*tokk-/*tok-al/*tō-l	‘skin’ PSD
*toṭ-V-	‘to hold’
*toṇṭ-V-	‘chameleon’
*toṯ-V	‘cattle, cow’
*tor-Vmp-	‘lungs’
*toḷ-/*toṇ-	‘nine, 9/10’
*toẓ-V-	‘slavery’
*toẓ-V	‘cattle stall’
*tōc-ay	‘a cereal pancake’ SD
*tōṇ-ṭṭ-am (< *tōṇṭu)	‘garden’
*tōn-ṯu	‘to appear, strike to mind’
*tō-l (< *tok-al)	PSD	see tokktōẓ-/tōẓ-nt- ‘wolf’
*nakk-	‘to lick’
*naṭ-a	‘to walk’
*nan-key	‘good (wet) land’
*na-mpu (< *nay-mp-)	‘to long for’
*nari-(kkV)	‘jackal’
*nal	‘good, beautiful’ PSD
*naH-ay/-att/-kuẓi	‘dog’
*nāṭu	‘country, place’
→ *nāṯu	‘country, place’ SD II
*nā	(obl of 1sg) SD II
*nām-/*nam-V-	‘be emaciated’
*nā-l, nā-l-nk(k)
*nāl/*nal-V-	adj. ‘four’
→ *nāl-nk(k)V	‘four’ (3n-m pl)
*nāḷ	‘day’
→ *nāṇ-ṭ- (< *nāḷ-nt-)	‘day’ SD II
*nāḷ/*naḷ-V-	‘night’
*niṯ(V)-nay/-nal/-nāḷ	‘yesterday, completed day’
*niṯ-, nin-ṯ-	v.i. ‘to be full’
*nil-/*niṯ-/*niṯṯ-	‘to stand’
*nī- (< *niw-V-)	‘be elongated’
*nī	(obl of 2sg) SD II
*nī-	‘to abandon’
*nī-n/*nin-	‘thou’ (2sg)
*nī-r	‘you’ (2pl) PSD
*nīr	‘water’
*nuẓ-Vḷ/-nk-	‘mosquito’
*nūṯ- (obl. nūṯ-ṯV)	‘hundred’
*nūy	‘well’
*nūl	‘thread’
*nū(w)	‘sesame’
*nūẓ/*nuẓ-V-	‘to squeeze through’
*nek-Vḷ	‘alligator’
*nec-/*ney-	‘to weave’
*neñ-cV	‘mind, heart, pith’ SD I	see nen-ay
*nen-ay	‘to think’	see neñ-cu SD I
*ney	‘oil, ghee’
*nel	‘a paddy variety’
*nel-a-nc/-ncc	‘moon, moonlight’
*nel-V-	‘month’
*nell-/*nel-V-	‘myrobalan tree’, Phyllanthus emblica
*nēram	‘time, sun’ SD I, Br.
*noṭ-	‘to wash’
→ *noṯ-	‘to wash’ SD II
*noṭ-V-	‘to say’
*nōn-pu	‘a religious vow’
*nōy- (nōy-nt-)	‘to pain’
*pak-al	‘daylight’
*pac-V-	‘calf’
*pacc- ~ *pac-	‘yellow/green’
*pac-Vṇṭ-	‘yellow metal/gold’
*pac-Vṯ-/-Vl	‘green gram’
*paṭ-Vku	‘small boat, ferry’
*paḍḍ-V	‘a female buffalo’ SD II
*paṇ-V-	‘work’
*pan	‘agriculture land’
*pan-ī(kil)	‘dew, cold, chill’
*pan-ṯi	‘pig’
*pan-nīr	‘cool water, rose water’
*pan-V-	‘palm tree’
*pay-	‘to break, separate’
*par-a	‘to spread’
*par-utti	‘cotton’
*par-Vṇṭu	‘bullfrog’
*par-Vntu	‘vulture’
*pal	‘tooth’
*pal-acV/*pan-acV	‘jackfruit tree’
*pall-i	‘a lizard’
*pal-V	‘many’
*paw-aẓ	‘coral’
*paḷḷi	‘hamlet’
*paẓ-a	‘old, used’ (mainly referring to objects)
*paẓ-V- (paẓ-nt-)	‘to ripen’
*paH-	adj. ‘ten’
→ *paH-tu	‘ten’ (3n-m pl)
*pāṭṭ-ān	‘grand father’
*pāṭ-V	‘to sing’
→ *pāṯ-	‘to sing’ SD II
*pāṇ-/*paṇ-V-	‘ask, commission’
*pāṯ-/*paṯ-V-	‘to run, flee’
*pānkk-	‘betel nut’ SD I
*pāmpu	‘snake’
*pāy (pāy-nt-)	‘to leap’
*pār	‘to see, perceive, know’
*pār-ay,	‘crowbar’
*pāl	‘milk, breast’
*pic-V- ~ *piẓ-V-	‘to squeeze’
*picc-/*pic-V-	‘insanity’
*piṭ-i	v.t. ‘to grasp’; n. ‘handle’
*piṇṭ- (< *piẓ-nt-)	‘to squeeze’
*piṯ-u	‘rain’ SD II, ND
*pin/*piṯ-	‘back, end in place or time, afterwards’
*pin-cc-Vr	‘name’
→ *pec-ar	‘name’ PSD
*piy/*pī	‘excrement’
*pill-V	‘cat’
*piẓi- (piẓi-nt-)	‘to squeeze’
*piẓ-ul	‘intestines’ CD
*piẓ-Vcc-	‘sparrow’
*pī-t-/*pi-tt-	‘to fart’
*pīr	‘thatched grass’
*puc/*puy	Schleichera trijuga
*puc-V/*put-V-	‘new’
*puṭṭi	‘a measure of c. 500 lbs.’
*puṯ-ac-	‘dove, pigeon’
*puṯ-V	‘gourd shell, skull’
*pun-key	‘bad (dry) land’
*punttV	‘white-anthill’
*pun-nay	‘mastwood’
*puy/*pū	n. ‘flower’; v.i. ‘to blossom’
*pur-uṭu	‘birth pollution’ SD
*pul	‘grass’
*pul-i	‘tiger’
*pul-V-	‘pollution’
*puḷ-	adj. ‘sour’
*puẓ-u	‘insect’; v.i. ‘to blossom’
*pūṇ	‘to put on, wear, be yoked’
→ *pūṇ-ṭṭ- (< *pūṇ-tt-)	‘to cause to put on, yoke’
*peṭ-a	‘nape of neck’
*peṭṭ-i	‘box’ PSD
*peṇ	‘woman’
→ *peṇ-ṭṭ-i	‘female of an animal/bird’
→ *peṇ-(ḍ)li	‘marriage’ SD II
*peṇ-kk-	‘tile’
*per-V-	‘to grow big’	see pēr/per-Vpeẓ-an ‘bone, stone of fruit’
*pēc-/*pēẓ-	‘to talk, prattle’
*pēṇ/*pēy	‘devil, god’
*pēṇṭ-V (< *pēḷ-nt-)	‘cattle dung’
*pēṯ-	‘curd, to curdle’
→ *peṯ-V	‘to curdle’
→ *peṯ-uku	‘curd’
*pēn	‘louse’
*pēr/*per-V	‘big’
*po-	‘to perforate’
*pok-ay	‘smoke’
*pok-kuẓ-V-	‘navel’ SD I, SD II, CD
*pok-Vḷ-	‘imperial pigeon’
*pok-Vẓ	‘to praise’
*poc-/*poy-	‘to lie’
→ *poy-nkk-	‘to lie’
→ *poy-nkk-am	n. ‘falsehood’ (Pre-Telugu)
*poṭṭ-/*poṭ-V-	‘belly, stomach, pregnancy, intestines’
*poṯ-Vl	‘lungs’
*po-nku	‘to boil’
*por-a-/*prō-	‘to sell’ PSD II
*por-ay	‘cataract of eye’
*pol-am	‘field’
*pon	‘gold’ PSD
*pō-	‘to go’
→ *pō-k-	‘to go’
→ *pō-kk-	‘to send’ PSD
*pō-ntt-	‘male of an animal/bird’
*pōr	‘fight, battle’
→ *pōr/*por-V-	‘to fight’ v.t.
*pōẓ/*poẓ-u-tu	‘sun’
*mak-antu	‘son, male’
→ *mak-aḷ	‘daughter’
*mac-V- ~ *maẓ-V-	‘to delay, be dull’
*maṯ-i (nṯu)	‘male child, the young of an animal’
*maṭi-wēl-	‘washerman’ (maṭi ‘ceremonial purity’ + wēl-ay ‘work’) SD I, Te.
*maṯ-V-	‘be hidden, to forget’
*maṯ-Vku	‘covered drain’ SD
*maṯ-kāy	‘mango’ SD II
*mat-al/*mat-uw-ay	‘marriage’ SD I
*man- (man-ṯ-/-ṯṯ-)	‘to be, to live, stay’; also copular verb
*man-ay	‘house, place to live in’	see manmaya-
*maya-nk-	‘to be confused’
→ *maya-nkk-	v.t. ‘to confuse’
→ *may-nkk-am	n. ‘confusion’
*may-nt(t)-	‘fog, mist, dew’
*may-(mt)-	‘body’
→ *mē-nd-	‘body’
*may-Vr	‘peacock’
*mar-am/-an	‘tree’
*mar-untu	‘medicine’
*mar-Vt-	Terminalia tomentosa
*maẓ-ay	‘rain’ SD I
*maẓ-V-/*maṯ-V	‘axe’
*maẓc-a-	‘husband’
*mā	(obl of 1pl) SD II
*mā	‘animal, beast, deer’
*māṭ-V, mēṭ-ay	‘terraced house’
*māṯ-	v.i. ‘to be changed, altered’
→ *māṯṯ- (< *māṯ-tt-)	v.t. ‘to change, alter’
*mā-m	‘mango tree’
*māma	‘paternal (father’s sister’s husband)/maternal uncle’
*māy-tt-/*mā-cc-	‘man, husband’
*mic-al/*miy-al > mē-l	‘above, high’
*mit-Vẓ	‘brain, the physical part’
*miḷ-Vku	‘black pepper’
*miHn	‘star’
→ *min-	‘to shine, twinkle’
*mī	(obl of 2pl), SD II
*mīn	‘fish’
*muc-Vl	‘hare’
*mucc- ~ *muc-V-	‘to cover’
*muttV	‘pearl’
*mutt-/*mut-V	‘old, ancient’
→ *mut-tāta	‘great grandfather’
*mun	adj. ‘prior, before, front’
*mun-ay	‘war-front’
*mun-nay/-nāḷ	‘day before yesterday’
*muy-il	‘cloud’
*muy-cc-	‘baboon’
*mul-ay	‘breast, teat’ SD I
*muẓ-u-nk	v.i. ‘to sink’
→ *muẓ-u-nkk	v.t. ‘to drown’
*muH-/*mū-	adj. ‘three’
→ *mū-nṯu	‘three’ (3n-m pl)
*mūṭṭ-ay	‘bundle’
*mū-nk(k)u/-nc-	‘nose, beak’
*mūnk-ūc	‘mongoose’
*mūḷ-V-	‘bone marrow’
*mentt-i	‘fenugreek’
*mel-k-	‘to become soft’
*meẓ-V-	‘to plaster’
*mē-/*mē-l	‘above, high’	see mic-al
*mē-nkkV	‘goat’
*mēy	‘to graze’
*mēl, mēṯ-kk-	‘the high place, west’
*mēẓi	‘plough handle’
*moc-Vr	‘buttermilk’ SD I
*moy-al	‘hare’ PSD
*moẓ-V-	‘joint’
→ *moẓ-am kāl/-kay	‘knee/elbow joint’
*moẓ-V-	‘to speak’
*mōc-/*moc-V-ḷ	‘crocodile’
*yAH, yĀH/*yĀ	‘which’ (interrogative root)
*yĀṭu	‘goat, sheep’
*yAṇṭ-u	‘year’
*yĀtu	‘river, stream’
*yĀn/*yAn- (< *yAH-n-)	‘I’ (1sg)
*yĀn-ay	‘elephant’
*yĀm-ay, ? cām-p-	‘tortoise’
*yĀmp (?< *hāmp- < *cāmp-)	‘tortoise’
*yĀ-w-anṯ-/-at	‘who, what’	see ya(a)H
*yĀḷ	‘to rule’
*wak-ay	‘to deliberate’ SD I, Te.
*wac-Vṯ	‘stomach, foetus’ SD I
*wac-V-(kk)	‘stomach, foetus’ SD II except Te., was-Vr- / -nc- Tu.
*waṭ-a-kku	‘north’ PSD
*waṯ- ~ *waṯṯ-/*waṯ-V-	‘to dry up’
*waṯ-V-	‘cook, fry’
*way-	‘to throw’ aux. SD II
*war-iñci	‘rice’
*war-V-	‘scratch, draw lines’
*wal	‘strong’
→ *wal-a kay	‘right hand’
*waḷi	‘wind’
*waẓ-V-t	‘brinjal’
*waH-/*waH-r	‘to come’
→ *wa-nt- < *war-nt-	‘came’ (past) SD I, CD, ND
→ *wa-cc-/*wā-tt-	‘came’ (past) SD II
*wān-am	‘sky’
*wān-ay	‘a large earthen pot to store grain’	cf. wān/wan-V- ‘to fashion, form (as a pot)’
*wāy	‘mouth (edge, beak, mouth of vessel, aperture, blade of sword)’
*wāy-/*way-V-	‘open space, paddy field’
*wāy-cc-i	‘sword’
*wāḷ	‘sword’
*wāẓ	‘to flourish’
*wāẓ-ay	‘banana’ SD I
*wiṭ-u	‘to leave’ PSD
*witt-V	‘seed’; ‘to sow’
*wir-al	‘finger’ SD I
→ *wir-and/-anj	‘finger’ SD II, CD
*wiri-nk-	‘to open, crack’
→ *wiri-nkk-	v.t. ‘to open, split’
*wiriñc-	‘finger’
*wil	‘bow’
*wil-	‘to sell’
→ *wil-ay	‘price’
*wīṭu	‘abode’
*wīẓ-/*wiẓ-V-	‘to fall’
*wekk- ~ *wek-V-	‘to hiccup, a hiccup’
*wec-/*wey-	‘roast, fry, heat’
*weṇ-ṇey	‘butter’ (< *weḷ + ney ‘white oil’)
*wet-V-	v.t. ‘to search’; ‘to marry’ ND
*weruku	‘cat’
*weḷ/*weṇ	‘white’
→ *weḷḷ-ay, weḷ-u-ppu	‘whiteness’	cf. Te. weṇd. i ‘silver’ (< *weḷ-nt-)
*weḷ-V-	‘wood-apple’
*wēṇṭ-V (< *wēḷ-nt-)	‘to want, desire’ PSD
*wēnt-anṯu	‘king, god’
*wē-mpu	‘neem tree’
*wēṇ-ṭta	‘hunting’
*wēy	‘to thatch’
*wēy-i	‘1000’	cf. wey-am ‘extensiveness’
*wēr	‘root’
*wēḷ (< *weH-ḷ)	‘to desire’	see wēṇṭ-V
*Vbi + taH-	complex verb stem SD I, SD II
*Vbinf + kūṭu	‘Vb + suit’ (permissive/prohibitive) SD I, SD II
*Vbinf + ciy-	‘Vb + give’ (permissive) SD II
*Vbinf + paṭu-	‘Vb + suffer’ (passive) SD I
*Vbinf + wēṇṭu	‘Vb + must’ (obligative) SD I
*Vbppl + iru-	‘Vb + to be’ (perfective) SD I
*Vbppl + ā	‘Vb + to be’ (completive) SD I
*Vbppl + koṭu	‘Vb + give’ (benefactive) SD I
*Vbppl + koḷ-/*koṇ-	‘Vb + take’ (reflexive)
*Vbppl + pō-	‘Vb + go’ (exhaustive) SD I, SD II
*Vbppl + wiṭu	‘Vb+ leave’ (completive) SD I
→ *(-w)-in ~ *-im/-ir	imperative sg/pl SD I

Bound forms (grammatical markers)

Proto-Dravidian	Glosses and notes
*-a/-i	oblique markers
*-aṯṯ	1pl incl marker in verbs SD II, some CD and ND
*-aṯṯ	obl marker SD I, SD II, aw-aṯṯ-
*-at	n-m sg
*-ad/-aw	3n-m sg/pl SD II
*-an	accusative case marker
*-an	obl marker in n-h dem pronouns SD I, SD II
→ *at-an-, it-an-, et-an-, aw-an-, iw-an-, ew-an-	Pre-Tel., obls of demonstrative and interrogative stems
*-an-Ø (< *an-t-)	3m sg SD I
*-an/-in	oblique markers
*-ant-/-want	3hum m suffix, -an/-wan SD I
*-an-ṯṯ-/-in-ṯṯ	complex oblique makers
*-am-t-am	(deverbal noun formative)
→ *opp-antam	‘agreement’ SD I, Te.
*-ay	accusative case marker
*-ay ~ *i/-ir	2sg/pl ND
*-ar/-ār	3h pl SD I
*-ar/-war	m pl/hum pl
*-al	infinitive-nominal marker
*-(w)-in ~ *-im/-ir	imperative sg/pl SD I
*-a(w)	3neu pl SD I
*-aw	non-m pl/non-h pl
*-aḷ/-āḷ	3f sg SD I
*-aH-aH/-āH	negation marker in verbs
*-ā	clitic (interrogative)
*-ān/-an/-a	infinitive markers
*-āl/-ān	instrumental case markers
*-a/-i	past-participle marker
*-i- ~ *-in-	past-tense marker
*-i	f sg suffix in derivation
*-(i)kk-ay	(noun formative), kōru ‘to desire’
→ *kōr-i-kk-ay	n. ‘wish, desire’ PSD
*-ītt/-a-tt-/-tt-i/-tt-a-	complex oblique markers
*-il/-in	locative case markers
*-in/-il	conditional non-finite verbmark er
*-ī̆, -ā̆y	2sg suffix in finite verbs SD I
*-ī̆r	(replacing older -īm) 2pl suffix in finite verbs SD I
*-um	‘also, totality, any/one (added to interrogative forms), and, even’ (coordinating suffix)
*-um	aorist future marker
*-uḷ/-uḷ-a-	locative postposition
*-ē	clitic (emphatic)
*-ē	clitic (interrogative)
*-ēn/-ēm	conditional non-finite verb marker
*-ō	clitic (dubitative-alternative)
*-oṭu/-ōṭu	sociative case marker SD I
*-k-a/-kk-a	(non-past + infinitive) optative marker SD I, SD II
*-k/-nk	non-past intransitive, -kk/-nkk non-past transitive markers
*-kk-	past-tense marker
*-c/-cc	past-tense marker
*-cc	transitive–causative suffix
*-cc-i (n)	perfective participle/gerund marker, a sequence of two past allomorphs *-cc- and *-i (n)- PSD, PCD
*-t-al-ay	(complex noun formative), oppu-talay
*-tu/-ttu	ppl marker SD I
*-tV-	non-past marker
*-t/-nt	past intransitive, -tt/-ntt past transitive
*-tt	oblique marker
→ *-ṯṯ-i-n/-ṯṯ-a-n	complex oblique markers
*-tt-	past marker SD II
*-tt-	transitive–causative suffix
*-t-/-tt-	past-tense markers
*-t-en-g	infinitive marker SD II
*-nk(k)-Vḷ	(non-human plural suffixes) SD I
*-nkk	dative case marker
*-ntu	aorist marker
*-n-tt-a/-ntt-i	complex oblique markers
*-n-	non-past/future marker
*-nV	oblique marker in nominals
*-p[-w-]/-mp	intransitive non-past marker
*-pp/-mpp	transitive non-past markers
*-pp-	transitive–causative marker
*-pi (~ *-wi- ~ *-ppi-)	causative suffix
*-pi-ntt/-mpp ~ *-ppi-ntt/-ppi-mpp-	causative suffixes followed by past and non-past morphemes (> palatalized variants, -wi-ncc-/-pi-ncc- of PSD)
*-may	(abstract noun formative)
→ *per-u-may	‘abundance’ SD
*-wa	negation marker in verbs SD II
*-(w)-in ~ *-im/-ir	imperative sg/pl SD I
*-Vṯṯ	1pl incl ND
*-Vd	3n-h sg ND
*-Vnṯ/-Vr	3m sg/h pl ND
*-Vn	accusative marker
*-Vn	infinitive marker
*-V̄̆n	1sg suffix in finite verbs
*-Vm/-dV	imperative sg/pl SD II
*-V̄̆m	1pl suffix in finite verbs
*-Vr	(hum pl suffix)
*-Vḷ	(non-hum pl suffix) CD, Tel.

Southworth (2005)

Proto-Dravidian agricultural terms reconstructed by Southworth (2005):

Gloss	Proto-Dravidian	Early/Late Proto-Dravidian
cow	*ā(m/n)	E
bull	*er-utu	E
? buffalo	*kaṭ-V	E
sheep/goat	*yĀṭu	E
dog (1)	*cū	E
dog (2)	*ñāl-	E
dog (3)	*naH-ay/att/-kuẓi	L
cat (1)	*ver-uku	E
cat (2)	*pill-	L?
horse (1)	*ivuḷi	E?
horse (2)	*kHutt-	L
ass (Asinus sp.)	*kaẓ-ut-ay	L
pig	*pan-ti	L
bear	*eḷ-V-ñc-	E
rodents (1)	*coṇṭṭ-	E
rodents (2)	*el-i	E
primates (1)	*muy-cc-	E
primates (2)	*kor-V-nkk-/-ntt-	L
deer (1)	*kaṭ-	L
deer (2)	*uẓ-u-pp-	E
deer (3)	*mā-y-	E
deer (4)	*koṭ-	L
wild canids (1)	*tōẓ-(nt-)	E
wild canids (2)	*nari-(kkV)	L
squirrel	*ciṭ(r)/cir(k)-	E?
porcupine	*cey-t-	L (E?)
elephant	*yĀnay	L
tiger	*pul-i	L
(wild) cat	*pā(vu)k(k)-	L
mongoose	*mūṅk-ūc-	L
fish (gen. term)	*mīn	E
carp	*kiṇṭ-	E
frog	*par-Vṇṭu	E
prawn	*et-	L
crab	*ñaṇṭ-	L
crow	*kākk-/*kāww-	E
crane	*korV-nk(k)-	E
dove/pigeon	*put-Vc-	E
(imperial) pigeon	*pok-	E
peacock (1)	*pī-lV/cV/kV	E
peacock (2)	*pur-/pūr-i-l	L
peacock (3)	*ñam-V-l	L
peacock (4)	*mañ(ñ)-il	L
parrot	*kiḷ-	L
lizard	*kav-uḷi	E
crocodile	*mōc-/*moc-V-ḷ-	E
bloodsucker lizard	*ōn-tti	E
snake	*carac-	L
snake	*pāmpu	L
snake	*cer-	L
python	*māc-un-	L
iguana	*uṭ-ump-	L
date	*cīnt(t)-	E
toddy palm	*tāẓ	E
tamarind	*cin-tta	E
palas	*mur -ukk-	E
food/fodder	*ār/ar-ak	E
? grain/seed (1)	*kūli	E?
? grain/seed (2)	*maṅci-k	E?
? rice (1)	*maṇṭ-	E
? rice (2)	*kec-	E
? rice (3)	*al-ak-	E
? rice (4)	*(v)ar-iñci	L
Italian millet	*kot -V	L
sorghum	*conna-l	L
horsegram	*koḷ	L
black gram (1)	*uẓ-untu	L
black gram (2)	*min(t)-	L
pigeon pea	*tu-var-	L
mung	*pac-Vt/Vl	L
onion/garlic	*uḷḷi	E
yam	*kic-ampu	E
eggplant	*vaẓ-Vt-	E
sesame	*nū(v)-	L
sugarcane	*cet-Vkk	L
cuddapah almond	*cir/cīr-	L
jujube	*irak-	L
fig	*cuv-	L
jambu	*ñēṟ-al	L
hemp	*boy-Vl	L?
luffa	*pīr-	L
drive (animals)	*mīṭ-	E
graze	*mēy-	E
to dig	*uẓ-V-	E
grind (grain)	*nūt-	E
sift/winnow (1)	*teḷ-	E
sift/winnow (2)	*nē(m)p-	E
to churn	*kaṭ-	E
to uproot/pluck	*kaḷ-	E
reap/cut (1)	*koy-	E
reap/cut (2)	*ar-	L
reap/cut (3)	*aru-	L
to husk	*īk-	L?
husk/chaff (1)	*uṅk	E
husk/chaff (2)	*poṇṭṭ-	L
? plough (1)	*ar-V-	E
? plough (2)	*ñān-kil	L
digging tool	*kunt-āḷ-	E
? ploughshare	*puy-il	L
grain container	*komm-	L?
stall/pen	*toẓ-V	L
herd/flock	*mant-ay	L?
sluice/drain	*tūmpu	L
tank	*ket-ay/-uvu	L
well	*nūy	L
fish-hook	*kāl	L
cowbell	*cir-ṅk-	L?
low-lying land	*kut-Vr-	E
uncultivated land (1)	*kam(p)a-	E?
uncultivated land (2)	*kar-V-	E
to clear land	*eru-kk-	E?
field (1)	*ñāl-	E
field (2)	*pol-am	L
field (3)	*vāy/vay-	L
threshing floor	*kaḷ-am/an	L

See also

• Appendix:Dravidian word lists
• Appendix:Dravidian Swadesh lists