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Appendix:Cognate sets for Bisayan languages

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This is a list of cognates in the Bisayan (or Visayan) languages.

The Bisayan languages is one of the sub-branches of the Philippine languages of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, and is composed of over 30 languages. It is also a dialect continuum, with neighboring varieties being largely mutually intelligible, and differences accumulate over distance.

Most data for the lists is based on the Austronesian Comparative Dictionary by Robert Blust and The Bisayan Dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and Reconstruction by David Paul Zorc.

Subgroups and languages

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This lists terms from the following languages and subgroups. Dialectal terms are marked with qualifiers.

  • South Bisayan
    • Surigaonon
    • Butuanon
    • Tausug
  • Cebuano
  • Central Bisayan
    • Waray-Waray
    • Western Sorsogon
    • Hiligaynon
    • Capiznon
    • Bantayanon
    • Porohanon
    • Masbatenyo
    • Central Sorsogon
    • Romblomanon
  • Asi
  • Western Bisayan
    • Aklanon
    • Kinaray-a
    • Inonhan
    • Ratagnon
    • Cuyonon
    • Caluyanun

Cognates

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Numbers

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English translation Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon and Tandaganon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
one *qəsa usa usa usa, sayo (Northern Samar) sayo usa usa usad usa
*qisa isa isa isa isa isad isa isaea isara isya isara isara isara
two *dadwa daywa darwa dalwa darwa darwa darwa
*duha duha duha duha duha duha duha duha duha duha ruha
*duwa duwa duwa duwa duwa
three *tatlú tatlo tatlo tatlo tatlo tatlo tatlo tatlo tatlo tatlo
*təlú tuyo, tuwo (Tandaganon) tuu tū tulo tulo tulo tulo tulo tulo tulo tuyo
four *qápqat apat apat ap-at ap-at apat ap-at apat apat apat
*qəpat upat upat upat upat upat upat upat upat upat upat upat
five *limá lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima
six *qanqəm anum anum an-om an-om anëm an-om anum anëm anëm
*qənəm unum unom unum unom unom unom unom unom unom unom unom
seven *pitu pito pito pitu pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito pito
eight *walú wayo wawo walu walo, wawo (Bohol) walo walo walo walo walo walo walo walo wayo wayo waeo walo walo walo walo walo
nine *siyam sijam, siyam (Tandaganon) siyam siyam siyam, sijam (Bohol, Southern Leyte) siyam siyam siyam siyam siyam sizam siyam siyam siyam sidam siyam siyam siyam siyam siyam siyam
ten *na-púluq napuyo, napuwo (Tandaganon) napulo, napuwo (Bohol) napulo napulo napulo napulo napulo napulo napulo napulo napuyo napueo napulo napulo napulo napulo
*sa-m-púluq, *sa-ŋ-púluq sampuu hangpū sampuyo sampulo

Personal pronouns

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Gloss Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
1st person singular absolutive *aku ako ako aku ako, ko ako, ak (clitic, Northern Samar) ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako ako
1st person singular ergative *(n-)akəq ako (preposed) ako (preposed) kaku (preposed) ako (preposed), nako (postposed)
  • Northern Samar: ak (preposed), nak (postposed)
 aku (preposed) ako (preposed), nako (postposed)
*(n-)akən akon (preposed), nakon (postposed) akon (preposed), nakon (postposed) akon (preposed), nakon (postposed) akon (preposed), nakon (postposed) akon (preposed) sa akon (preposed) nakon (postposed) akon (preposed), nakon (postposed) akën (preposed), nakën (postposed) nakon (preposed) akun (preposed), nakun (postposed) akën (preposed) akën (preposed), nakon (postposed)
*ku ko ko ku (postposed) ko (postposed, clitic)
  • ko (postposed, clitic)
 ko (postposed) ko (postposed, clitic) ko (postposed, clitic) ko (postposed, clitic) ko (postposed, clitic) ko (postposed) ko (postposed) ko (postposed) ko (postposed, clitic) ko (postposed) ko (postposed) ko (postposed) ko (postposed) ko (postposed)
1st person singular oblique *sa akəq, *(kan-)akəq, *(d-)akəq, *(k-)akəq kanako, dako (Siargao) kanako kaku kanako, nako (clitic), sa aho (Bohol)
  • Northern Samar: saak
 sa ako sa ako
*(n-)akən, *sa akən, *(kan-)akən, *(d-)akən, *(k-)akən sa akon sa akon sa akon dakon sa akon sa akon akon kakon, kang (clitic) kanakën akon kanakun kanakën kanakën
1st person plural exclusive absolutive *kami kami kami kami kami, mi kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami kami
1st person plural exclusive ergative *(n-)aməq amo (preposed), namo amo (preposed), namo kamu (preposed), namu amo (preposed), namo (postposed)
  • Northern Samar: am (preposed), nam (postposed)
 amo (preposed) amo (preposed), namo (postposed)
*(n-)amən amon (preposed), namon (postposed) amon (preposed), namon (postposed) amon (preposed), namon (postposed) amon (preposed), namon (postposed) amon (preposed) sa amon (preposed) namon (postposed). No preposed equivalent amon (preposed), namon (postposed) amën (preposed), namën (postposed) namon (postposed). No preposed form. amun (preposed), mun (postposed) amën (preposed), mën (postposed) amën (preposed). namën (postposed)
*kami mi (postposed) mi (postposed)
1st person singular oblique *sa aməq, *(kan-)aməq, *(d-)aməq, *(k-)aməq kanamo, damo (Siargao) kanamo kamu kanamo, namo (clitic), sa amo (Bohol)
  • Northern Samar: saam
 sa amo sa amo
*(n-)amən, *sa amən, *(kan-)amən, *(d-)amən, *(k-)amən sa amon sa amon sa amon damon sa amon saamon amon kamon kanamën amon kanamun kanamën kanamën
1st person plural inclusive absolutive *kita kita kita kitaniyu kita, ta kita, ta (clitic), kit (clitic, Northern Samar) kita kita kita kita kita kita kita kita kita kita, ta kita kita kita kita kita
1st person plural inclusive ergative *(n-)atəq ato (preposed), nato (postposed) ato (preposed), ato katuniyu (preposed), natuniyu ato (preposed), nato (postposed)
  • Northern Samar: at (preposed), nat (postposed)
 ato (preposed) ato (preposed), nato (postposed)
*(n-)atən aton (preposed), naton (postposed) aton (preposed), naton (postposed) aton (preposed), naton (postposed) aton (preposed), naton (postposed) aton (preposed) sa aton (preposed) naton (postposed). No preposed equivalent aton (preposed), naton (postposed) atën (preposed), natën (postposed) naton (postposed). atun (preposed). No postposed form. atën (preposed) atën (preposed). natën (postposed)
*kita ta (postposed, clitic) ta (postposed, clitic) ta (postposed). No preposed form. ta (postposed, clitic) ta (postposed) ta (postposed, clitic) ta (postposed, clitic) ta (postposed) ta (postposed)
1st person singular oblique *sa atəq, *(kan-)atəq, *(d-)atəq, *(k-)atəq kanato, dato (Siargao) kanato katuniyu kanato, nato (clitic), sa ato (Bohol)
  • Northern Samar: saat
 sa ato sa ato
*(n-)atən, *sa atən, *(kan-)atən, *(d-)atən, *(k-)atən sa aton sa aton sa aton daton sa aton sa aton aton katon kanatën sa aton kanatun kanatën kanatën
1st person plural dual absolutive *kita kita
1st person plural dual ergative *(k-)atuq katu (preposed), natu (postposed)
*kita ta
1st person plural dual oblique *katu katu
2nd person singular absolutive *ikaw ikaw, kaw ikaw, kaw ikaw, kaw ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, ka ikaw, kaw ikaw, kaw ikaw, kaw ikaw, kaw ikaw, kaw
2nd person singular ergative *(n-)imu imo (preposed) imo (preposed) kaymu (preposed), mu (postposed) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic)
  • Standard: imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic)
  • Northern Samar: im (preposed), nim (postposed)
 mu (postposed). No preposed equivalent imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) saimo (preposed), mo (postposed, clitic) nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic). No preposed equivalent. nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic). No preposed equivalent. imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic). No preposed equivalent imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic) imo (preposed), nimo (postposed), mo (postposed, clitic)
2nd person singular oblique *sa imu, *(kan-)imu, *(d-)imu, *(k-)imu kanimo, dimo (Siargao) kanimo kaymu kanimo, nimo (clitic), sa imo (Bohol)
  • standard: ha imo
  • Northern Samar: saim
 imu sa imo sa imo sa imo dimo sa imo saimo imo imo kimo, king (clitic) kanimo imo kanimo kanimo kanimo
2nd person plural absolutive *kamu kamo, jo (Siargao) kamo kamu ikaw, mo kamu, kam kamu kamo, mo kamo, mo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo kamo
2nd person plural ergative *(n-)inyu inyo (preposed), ninyo (postposed) inyo (preposed), ninyo (postposed) inyo (preposed), ninyo (postposed) inzo (preposed), ninzo (postposed) nindo (postposed). No preposed equivalent. ninro (postposed). No preposed equivalent. inyo (preposed), ninyo (postposed), niyo (postposed, clitic) inyo (preposed), ninyo (postposed), niyo (postposed, clitic) ninyo (postposed). No preposed equivalent inyo (preposed), ninyo (postposed) indo (preposed), nindo (postposed) indo (preposed), nindo (postposed)
*(n-)indu
*(n-)iyu ijo (preposed), nijo (postposed) iyo (preposed), niyo kanyu (preposed), niyu (postposed) iyo (preposed), niyo (postposed) sa iyu (preposed), niyu (postposed). iyo (preposed), niyo (postposed) iyo (preposed), niyo (postposed) saiyo (preposed), niyo (postposed)
2nd person plural oblique *sa inyu, *(kan-)inyu, *(d-)inyu, *(k-)inyu kanyu kaninyo, ninyo (clitic), sa inyo (Bohol) sa inyo sa inyo dinzo indo inro kinyo kaninyo inyo kaninyo kanindo kanindo
*(kan-)indu
*sa iyu, *(kan-)iyu, *(d-)iyu, *(k-)iyu kanijo, dijo (Siargao) kaniyo

ha iyo

iyu sa iyo sa iyo saiyo
3rd person singular absolutive *siya sija siya siya, sya siya, sija (Bohol) hiya, siya siya siya siya siza siya siya, siya sida
imaw imaw
*tana -t-ana (clitic) tana tana tana tana
3rd person singular ergative *iya, (n-)iya, (kan-)iya ija (preposed), nija (postposed) niya (preposed) kaniya (preposed), niya (postposed), -nya (postposed, enclitic) iya (preposed), niya (postposed)

kanya (preposed), niya (postposed)

kanya (preposed), niya (postposed). iya (preposed), niya (postposed) iya (preposed), niya (postposed) iya (preposed), niya (postposed) iza (preposed), niza (postposed) iya (preposed), niya (postposed) saiya (preposed), niya (postposed) niya (postposed). No proposed equivalent. nida (postposed). No preposed equivalent.
*ana ana (preposed), nana (postposed), na (postposed, clitic) tana (preposed), nana (postposed), na (postposed, clitic) nana ana (postposed), na (postposed, clitic) ana (postposed), na (postposed, clitic) ana (postposed), nana (postposed)
3rd person singular oblique *sa iya, (n-)iya, (kan-)iya kanija, dija (Siargao) kaniya kaniya kaniya, niya (clipped), sa ija (Bohol)

ha iya (standard), sa kanya (Northern Samar)

sa kanya (preposed), sa iya sa iya sa iya diza sa iya saiya sa iya sa nida
*(kan-)ana, *(ka-)ana, *sa ana kana, kaa (clitic) kanana, kana sa ana kanana kanana kanana

People

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English translation Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
man (human) *tau tawo tau tau tawo tawo tawu tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo tawo taw tao
man (male) *lalaki layaki, laki (Tandag) laki lāki lalaki, laki (dialectal) lalaki lalaki lalaki lalaki lalaki lalaki lalaki lalaki layaki yayaki laeaki lalaki lalaki lalaki lalaki lalaki
woman *ba-bayi babaji babai babai babaye babaye babayi babaye babaye babayi babayi babaye babaye babaye babaye babaye babaye babaye babayi babay babayi
child *anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak anak
wife *qasawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa asawa
mother *ina ina ina ina ina (fossilized) ina ina ina ina ina ina ina ina ina ina ina ina
*iduy iroy iloy iloy iloy
father *amah ama ama ama ama ama ama ama(-y) ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama
parent *g(-in-)ikan-an ginikanan ginikanan ginikanan ginikanan ginikanan ginikanan ginikanan ginikanan

Natural features and phenomena

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English translation Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
sun *qádlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw, adaw (Northern Samar) adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw adlaw
moon *búlan buyan, buwan (Tandag) buwan buwan bulan, buwan(dialectal, Bohol, Leyte) bulan bulan bulan bulan bulan bulan bulan bulan buyan buyan buean bulan bulan bulan bulan bulan
star *bituqən bituon bituon bituun bituon bituon bituun bitoon bitoon bituun bitoon bitoon bitoon bitoon bitoon bitoon bituën bituon bituwon bitwën bituën
water *túbig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig tubig
rain *qudán uyan, uwan (Tandag) uwan ulan ulan, uwan (Urban Cebu, Bohol) uran uran ulan ulan uran uran uran uran uyan uyan uean uran uran uran uran uran
earth *yutaq yuta, juta (Bohol, Southern Leyte) yuta duta
*dutaq duta duta duta duta
wood *káhuy kahoy kahoy kahuy kahoy kahoy kahuy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahoy kahuy kawuy kawoy kaoy
river *súbaq suba suba suba suba suba suba suba suba suba suba
*sálug salog, sawog (Urban Cebu) salog salug salug
mountain *búkid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukir bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid bukid
fire *kalayu kayajo, kayo (Tandag) kayu kāyu kalayo, kayo (Urban Cebu, Northern Cebu), kajo (Bohol) kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kayado kaeayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo kalayo
lightning *lə(N)tiq linti linti luti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti linti
thunder *daləgdəg dayugdog dawgdug dalugdog, dawugdog (Boholano) dalugdog dalugdug dalugdog dalugdog dayugdog rayugrog daeugdog dalëgdëg
earthquake *linug linog linog linug linog linog linug linog linog linog linog linog linog linog yinog linog linog linog linog linog linog

Body

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English translation Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
blood *dugúq dugo dugo dugu dugo dugo dugu dugo dugo dugo dugo dugo dugo dugo rugo dugo dugo dugo dugo dugo dugo
body *láwas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas yawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas lawas
body hair *badahibo barhibo (Siargao) bāhibu balhibo barahibo balahibo barahibo baeahibo
bone *bəkəg bukog (Siargao, Tandag) bukug bukog bukog (“fish spine”) bukog (“fish spine”)
heart *kasiŋkasiŋ kasingkasing kasingkasing kasingkasing kasingkasing kasingkasing kasingkasing

Human motion

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English translation Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
to run *dalagan dayagan, dyagan (Siargao) dāgan dalagan, dagan (Urban Cebuano, Bohol) dalagan dalagan dalagan dalagan dalagan dalagan dalagan dalagan dayagan rayagan daeagan dalagan dalagan dalagan dalagan dalagan

Ideas and rituals

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English translation Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
soul *kálag kalag kaag kalag, kag (Bohol) kalag kalag kalag kalag kalag kalag kalag kalag kalag kalag kaeag kalag kalag kalag kalag kalag

Miscellaneous

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English translation Proto-Bisayan reconstruction Southern Bisayan Cebuano Central Bisayan Asi Western Bisayan
Surigaonon Butuanon Tausug Waray-Waray Waray Sorsogon Hiligaynon Capiznon Bantayanon Porohanon Masbatenyo Masbate Sorsogon Romblomanon Aklanon Kinaray-a Inonhan Ratagnon Cuyonon Caluyanun
to give *hatag hatag hatag hatag hatag hatag hatag hatág
*taqu tao tao tao tao tao tawo taw tao
do not *ayaw ajaw, ayaw (Tandag) ayaw ayaw ayaw, ajaw (Bohol, Southern Leyte) ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw azaw ~ izaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw ayaw

Sound correspondences with Proto-Bisayan

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Following are the reflexes of Proto-Bisayan sounds on the present languages according to Zorc:

  • PBs *q
    • Medial *-q-
      • Cuyonon: disappears /ᴓ/
      • Ratagnon - becomes -w- before /i/, -y- before /i/, retained elsewhere
      • Other varieties: retained
    • Final -q, retained across all languages
    • q+consonant
      • Most languages: retained, and in some cases metathesized
      • Cuyan group (Cuyonon, Ratagnon): disappears
  • PBs *h
    • Initial *h-
      • Cuyonon, Caluyanun, Ratagnon: becomes glottal stop
      • other varieties: retained
    • Medial -h-
      • Cuyonon: disappears
      • Caluyanon: retained
      • Ratagnon: becomes -w- before /u/, -y- before /i/, retained elsewhere
      • other varieties: retained
    • *h+consonant
      • Cuyonon, Caluyanun, Ratagnon: disappears
      • other varieties: retained
    • reduplicated syllables ending with -h followed by consonant: metathesis
    • -h: Generally retained as fossilized element in suffixed words, though this may disappear in Aklanon and Asi
  • PBs *ᴓ (zero)
    • Initial *ᴓ-
      • Equals to initial glottal stop /q-/
    • Medial *-ᴓ-
      • medial: Caluyanun, Butuanon, Tausug (+Tagalog): becomes medial glottal stop
      • Cuyonon: retained
      • other varieties: becomes -w- before /u~o/, -y- before /i~e/
    • Final *-ᴓ is reconstructed depending where the varieties that retain initial /h/ or glottal stop always remove the final vowel (with possible addition of /h/) when a suffix is added
  • PBs *ə (schwa)
    • retained in Kinaray-a, Cuyonon, Caluyanon, Cebuano (dialectal), Waray-Waray (dialectal), Surigaonon (inland dialects)
    • merged with /u/ elsewhere
    • prepenultimate ə
      • Western Bisaya: becomes /a/
      • Central and Southern Bisaya, and Cebuano: assimilates with vowel on following syllables
  • PBS *y
    • Initial and medial *y (*y- and *-y-)
      • Asi: becomes d-, -d-
      • Cebuano (Bohol, Southern Leyte), Surigao (standard, Jaun-Jaun): Becomes /d͡ʒ/ (j-, -j-)
      • Porohanon: becomes /z/ (z-, -z-)
      • other varieties: retained
    • -y
      • retained
  • PBs *l
    • *-il-, *-li-, *-yl-, *-ly-, *-dl-, *-ld-, *-tl-, *-lt-, *-nl-, *-ln-, *-sl-, *-ls-:
      • Most varieties: retained
      • Asi: /l/ becomes ⟨y⟩ /j/
    • Initial *l-
      • Aklanon: e- /ɤ/ (rare, mostly retained)
      • Asi: y- /j/
      • Most other varieties: retained
    • Medial *-l- (unless preceded or followed by /i/)
      • Aklanon: -e- /ɤ/
      • Asi, Romblomanon, Surigao (standard, Jaun-Jaun): -y- /j/
      • Cebuano (Bohol, Urban and Northern Cebu, Leyte), Butuanon, Surigao (Tandag): disappears or becomes W before U or Y before I
      • other varieties: retained
      • Tausug: retained, or disappears around identical vowels
      • In some Cebuano dialects, esp. Boholano, retained where adjacent to schwas
    • Final ** -l
      • Aklanon: -e /ɤ/
      • Asi, Romblomanon, Surigao (standard, Jaun-Jaun): -y
      • Butuanon, Cebuano (Bohol), Surigao (Tandag): dropped on some words, with compensatory vowel length
      • other varieties: retained
    • *l forming consonant cluster (*-Cl-, *-lC-): generally retained. -lC- clusters on descendant terms (usually prefixed ones where the consonant is an apical one) is metathesized
  • PBs *d
    • Initial *d-, final *-d and *d abutting any consonant (with exceptions)
      • Asi: Becomes r-, -r, and ⟨r⟩ (when next consonants)
      • other varieties: retained
    • Intervocalic *-d- (with exceptions)
      • Aklanon: becomes -e- /ɤ/
      • Asi, Romblomanon, Surigao (standard, Jaun, Kalagan): becomes -y- /j/
      • Capiznon, Hiligaynon, Cebuano: becomes -l-
      • Cebuano (Bohol, Urban and Northern Cebu, Leyte), Butuanon, Surigao (Tandag): disappears or becomes /w/ before /u/ or ⟨y⟩ /j/ before /i/
      • Tausug: becomes -l- or disappears
      • other varieties: becomes -r- (in many cases -l-)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  • David Paul Zorc (1977) “The Bisayan Dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and Reconstruction”, in Pacific Linguistics‎[1]
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