Appendix:Sanskrit sandhi
Work in progress...
Introduction
[edit]This appendix will mainly cover external sandhi.
Vowel sandhi
[edit]Similar vowels combine
[edit]Two vowels with the same quality combine to one long vowel:
इह (ihá) + अस्ति (asti) → इहास्ति (ihā́sti), sometimes transliterated ihā́ ’sti
राजा (rājā) + आसीत् (āsīt) → राजासीत् (rājāsīt), sometimes transliterated rājā ”sīt
अति (ati) + इव (iva) → अतीव (atīva)
मधु (mádhu) + उदकम् (udakám) → मधूदकम् (mádhūdakám)
Final ऋ (ṛ) + initial ऋ (ṛ) results theoretically in ॠ (ṝ), but there are no practical examples of this.
Final अ (a) and आ (ā)
[edit]An a-vowel combines with an i-vowel to ए (e), with an u-vowel to ओ (o), with ऋ (ṛ) to अर् (ar), with ए (e) or ऐ (ai) to ऐ (ai), and with ओ (o) or औ (au) to औ (au):
राज (rāja) + इन्द्र (indra) → राजेन्द्र (rājendra)
पिता (pitā́) + इव (iva) → पितेव (pitéva)[note 1]
आ (ā́) + उभा (ubhā́) → पितेव (óbhā́)
महा (mahā) + ऋषि (ṛṣi) → महर्षिः (maharṣiḥ) (often written महऋषिः (mahaṛṣiḥ) in Vedic texts)
सा (sā) + एव (eva) → सैव (saiva)
दिवा (divā) + ओकसः (okasaḥ) → दिवौकसः (divaukasaḥ)
In a combination like इन्द्र (indra) + आ (ā) + इहि (ihi), the two first elements are combined first, so: → इन्द्रा (indrā) + इहि (ihi) → इन्द्रेहि (indrehi).
Final इ (i), ई (ī), उ (u), ऊ (ū) and ऋ (ṛ)
[edit]An i-vowel becomes य् (y) when followed by a dissimilar vowel, the same happens with an u-vowel, becoming व् (v), and with ऋ (ṛ), becoming र् (r):
प्रति (práti) + आयम् (āyam) → प्रत्यायम् (prátyāyam), also transliterated práty āyam
स्त्री (strī) + अस्य (asya) → स्त्र्यस्य (stryasya), or stry asya
मधु (madhu) + इव (iva) → मध्विव (madhviva), or madhv iva
दुहितृ (duhitṛ) + अर्थे (arthe) → दुहित्रर्थे (duhitrarthe)
Final ए (e) and ओ (o)
[edit]- Before अ (a), ए (e) and ओ (o)[note 2] are kept and the following अ (a) disappears, indicated by avagraha ऽ (ʼ):
ते (té) + अब्रुवन् (abruvan) → ते ऽब्रुवन् (tè ʼbruvan)[note 3]
वायो (vāyo) + अवमन्यते (avamanyate) → वायो ऽवमन्यते (vāyo ʼvamanyate) (the same happens when -अस् (-as) becomes -ओ (-o), see below)
The elision of अ (a) doesn't always happen in Vedic texts.
- Before all other vowels, ए (e) becomes अ (a) and ओ (o) can become either अव् (av) or अ (a) (the latter especially before उ (u) / ऊ (ū)):
नगरे (nagare) + इह (iha) → नगर इह (nagara iha)
वायो (vāyo) + इमे (imé) → वायविमे (vāyavimé), also transliterated vāyav imé
विष्णो (viṣṇo) + उत (uta) → विष्ण उत (viṣṇa uta)
Final ऐ (ai) and औ (au)
[edit]Final ऐ (ai) becomes आ (ā), and final औ (au) is usually joined to a following vowel as आव् (āv):
तस्मै (tasmai) + अददत् (adadat) → तस्मा अददत् (tasmā adadat)
स्त्रियै (striyai) + उक्तम् (uktam) → स्त्रिया उक्तम् (striyā uktam)
तौ (tau) + एव (eva) → तावेव (tāveva), also transliterated tāv eva
For final औ (au), there are deviations from this in Vedic texts. The व् (v) is often dropped before उ (u) / ऊ (ū): ता उभौ (tā́ ubháu) from तौ (táu) + उभौ (ubháu).
Uncombinable vowels
[edit]Some vowels are 'uncombinable' (प्रगृह्य (pragṛhya)):
1) the dual endings -ī, -ū and -e (also as part of a conjugational ending like -आते (-āte)): बन्धू आसाते इमौ (bandhū āsāte imau)
2) the final vowel of an interjection, like अहो (aho) and हे (he)
3) a final -o made from the combination of final -a with the particle उ (u), e.g. अथो (átho) from अथ (átha) + उ (u).
Rules for final स् (s) and र् (r)
[edit]Final स् (s) and र् (r) become:
- visarga ः (ḥ) before a pause
- श् (ś) before voiceless palatal consonants च् (c) and छ् (ch)
- ष् (ṣ) before voiceless retroflex consonants ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh)
- स् (s) before voiceless dental consonants त् (t) and थ् (th); in Vedic Sanskrit, this can become ष् (ṣ) when not preceded by अ (a) or आ (ā), especially before pronouns: अग्निष् ट्वा (agníṣ ṭvā) from अग्निस् (agnís) + त्वा (tvā);[1] before त्स् (ts), the conversion can optionally be to visarga.
Before sibilants, -स् (-s) and -र् (-r) either become visarga, or are converted to the following sibilant. Optionally, they can be dropped before sibilant + voiceless stop.
Before क् (k), ख् (kh), प् (p) and फ् (ph), the conversion is generally to visarga.[note 4] However, there are several exceptions where the result is स् (s) (after अ (a) or आ (ā)) or ष् (ṣ) (elsewhere), very often in compounds, but in Vedic also in case of: 1) a preposition before a verbal form; 2) a genitive before a governing noun, e.g. दिवस् पुत्रः (divás putráḥ); 3) an ablative before परि (pári); 4) some other cases like द्यौष् पिता (dyáuṣ pitā́) in Rigveda IV,1,10.[2]
Before voiced sounds (this includes voiced consonants and vowels), there are specific rules for -अस् (-as) and for -आस् (-ās). The general rule is that final स् (s)/र् (r) become र् (r), e.g. अग्निर् अर्हन् (agnír árhan), except before र् (r), when they are omitted and a short vowel is lengthened: पुना रमते (punā ramate) from पुनर् (punar) + रमते (ramate). In the case of final -अस् (-as), this becomes -ओ (-o) before a voiced consonant or before अ (a) (with this अ (a) disappearing, marked by avagraha), or becomes -अ (-a) before any other vowel. Final -आस् (-ās) becomes -आ (-ā) before any voiced sound.
The nominative masculine pronouns सस् (sás) (from स (sá)), एषस् (eṣás) and (Vedic) स्यस् (syás) form a specific exception: they lose their -स् (-s) before any consonant.
Examples
[edit]Words on -as
[edit]For nominative singular of इन्द्र (índra):
| Sandhi forms of इन्द्रस् (índras) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause | इन्द्रः (índraḥ) |
| Before क् (k), ख् (kh), प् (p) and फ् (ph) | इन्द्रः (índraḥ), इन्द्रस् (índras) (Vedic, see text) |
| Before voiced consonants and अ (a) (with अ (a) disappearing) |
इन्द्रो (índro) |
| Before vowels (except अ (a)) | इन्द्र (índra) |
| Before च् (c) and छ् (ch) | इन्द्रश् (índraś) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | इन्द्रष् (índraṣ) |
| Before त् (t) and थ् (th) | इन्द्रस् (índras) |
| Before श् (ś) | इन्द्रः (índraḥ), इन्द्रश् (índraś) |
| Before ष् (ṣ) | इन्द्रः (índraḥ), इन्द्रष् (índraṣ) |
| Before स् (s) | इन्द्रः (índraḥ), इन्द्रस् (índras) |
For the exceptional case of the nominative masculine singular of स (sá, “that, he”):
| Sandhi forms of सस् (sás) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause | सः (sáḥ) |
| Before consonants and vowels (except अ (a)) | स (sá) (in Vedic often combined with a following vowel) |
| Before अ (a) (with अ (a) disappearing) | सो (só) |
Words on -ās
[edit]For nominative singular of उषस् (uṣás):
| Sandhi forms of उषास् (uṣā́s) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause | उषाः (uṣā́ḥ) |
| Before क् (k), ख् (kh), प् (p) and फ् (ph) | उषाः (uṣā́ḥ), उषास् (uṣā́s) (Vedic, see text) |
| Before vowels and voiced consonants | उषा (uṣā́) |
| Before च् (c) and छ् (ch) | उषाश् (uṣā́ś) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | उषाष् (uṣā́ṣ) |
| Before त् (t) and थ् (th) | उषास् (uṣā́s) |
| Before श् (ś) | उषाः (uṣā́ḥ), उषाश् (uṣā́ś) |
| Before ष् (ṣ) | उषाः (uṣā́ḥ), उषाष् (uṣā́ṣ) |
| Before स् (s) | उषाः (uṣā́ḥ), उषास् (uṣā́s) |
Words on -s or -r (except -as/-ās)
[edit]For nominative singular of अग्नि (agní):
| Sandhi forms of अग्निस् (agnís) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause | अग्निः (agníḥ) |
| Before क् (k), ख् (kh), प् (p) and फ् (ph) | अग्निः (agníḥ), अग्निष् (agníṣ) (Vedic, see text) |
| Before vowels and voiced consonants (except र् (r)) | अग्निर् (agnír) |
| Before र् (r) | अग्नी (agnī́) |
| Before च् (c) and छ् (ch) | अग्निश् (agníś) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | अग्निष् (agníṣ) |
| Before त् (t) and थ् (th) | अग्निस् (agnís), अग्निष् (agníṣ) (Vedic) |
| Before श् (ś) | अग्निः (agníḥ), अग्निश् (agníś) |
| Before ष् (ṣ) | अग्निः (agníḥ), अग्निष् (agníṣ) |
| Before स् (s) | अग्निः (agníḥ), अग्निस् (agnís) |
For अन्तर् (antár):
| Sandhi forms of अन्तर् (antár) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause | अन्तः (antáḥ) |
| Before क् (k), ख् (kh), प् (p) and फ् (ph) | अन्तः (antáḥ), अन्तस् (antás) (Vedic, see text) |
| Before vowels and voiced consonants (except र् (r)) | अन्तर् (antár) |
| Before र् (r) | अन्ता (antā́) |
| Before च् (c) and छ् (ch) | अन्तश् (antáś) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | अन्तष् (antáṣ) |
| Before त् (t) and थ् (th) | अन्तस् (antás) |
| Before श् (ś) | अन्तः (antáḥ), अन्तश् (antáś) |
| Before ष् (ṣ) | अन्तः (antáḥ), अन्तष् (antáṣ) |
| Before स् (s) | अन्तः (antáḥ), अन्तस् (antás) |
Words on -m
[edit]For accusative singular of देव (devá):
| Sandhi forms of देवम् (devám) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause, vowels and labials | देवम् (devám) |
| Elsewhere | देवं (deváṃ) |
Words on -an, -in
[edit]For third person plural imperfect of अस्ति (ásti):
| Sandhi forms of आसन् (ā́san) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause, velar and labial stops, द् (d), ध् (dh), न् (n), म् (m), य् (y), र् (r), व् (v) and ह् (h) |
आसन् (ā́san) |
| Before vowels | आसन्न् (ā́sann) |
| Before च् (c) and छ् (ch) | आसंश् (ā́saṃś) |
| Before ज् (j), झ् (jh) and श् (ś) | आसञ् (ā́sañ) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | आसंष् (ā́saṃṣ) |
| Before ड् (ḍ), ढ् (ḍh) and ण् (ṇ) | आसण् (ā́saṇ) |
| Before त् (t) and थ् (th) | आसंस् (ā́saṃs) |
| Before ल् (l) | आसंल् (ā́saṃl) |
| Before ष् (ṣ) and स् (s) | आसन् (ā́san), आसन्त् (ā́sant) |
Words on -ān
[edit]For nominative singular of भवत् (bhávat, “your honor”):
| Sandhi forms of भवान् (bhávān) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause, velar and labial stops, द् (d), ध् (dh), न् (n), म् (m), य् (y), र् (r), व् (v) and ह् (h) |
भवान् (bhávān) |
| Before vowels | भवान् (bhávān), भवाँ (bhávām̐) (Vedic) |
| Before च् (c) and छ् (ch) | भवांश् (bhávāṃś) |
| Before ज् (j), झ् (jh) and श् (ś) | भवाञ् (bhávāñ) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | भवांष् (bhávāṃṣ) |
| Before ड् (ḍ), ढ् (ḍh) and ण् (ṇ) | भवाण् (bhávāṇ) |
| Before त् (t) and थ् (th) | भवांस् (bhávāṃs) |
| Before ल् (l) | भवांल् (bhávāṃl) |
| Before ष् (ṣ) and स् (s) | भवान् (bhávān), भवान्त् (bhávānt) |
Words on -īn, -ūn, -ṝn
[edit]For accusative masculine plural of त्रि (trí):
| Sandhi forms of त्रीन् (trī́n) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause, velar and labial stops, द् (d), ध् (dh), न् (n), म् (m), य् (y), र् (r), व् (v) and ह् (h) |
त्रीन् (trī́n) |
| Before vowels | त्रीन् (trī́n), त्रीँर् (trī́m̐r) (Vedic) |
| Before च् (c) and छ् (ch) | त्रींश् (trī́ṃś) |
| Before ज् (j), झ् (jh) and श् (ś) | त्रीञ् (trī́ñ) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | त्रींष् (trī́ṃṣ) |
| Before ड् (ḍ), ढ् (ḍh) and ण् (ṇ) | त्रीण् (trī́ṇ) |
| Before त् (t) and थ् (th) | त्रींस् (trī́ṃs) |
| Before ल् (l) | त्रींल् (trī́ṃl) |
| Before ष् (ṣ) and स् (s) | त्रीन् (trī́n), त्रीन्त् (trī́nt) |
Words on -t
[edit]For nominative singular of पद् (pád, “foot”):
| Sandhi forms of पात् (pā́t) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause, क् (k), ख् (kh), त् (t), थ् (th), प् (p), फ् (ph), ष् (ṣ) and स् (s) |
पात् (pā́t) |
| Before vowels, ग् (g), घ् (gh), द् (d), ध् (dh), ब् (b), भ् (bh), य् (y), र् (r), व् (v), and ह् (h) (becoming ध् (dh)) |
पाद् (pā́d) |
| Before nasals | पान् (pā́n), पाद् (pā́d) |
| Before च् (c), छ् (ch), and श् (ś) (becoming छ् (ch)) | पाच् (pā́c) |
| Before ज् (j) and झ् (jh) | पाज् (pā́j) |
| Before ट् (ṭ) and ठ् (ṭh) | पाट् (pā́ṭ) |
| Before ड् (ḍ) and ढ् (ḍh) | पाड् (pā́ḍ) |
| Before ल् (l) | पाल् (pā́l) |
Words on -k, -ṭ and -p
[edit]For nominative singular of वाच् (vā́c, “voice”):
| Sandhi forms of वाक् (vā́k) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause and voiceless consonants | वाक् (vā́k) |
| Before vowels and voiced consonants (except nasals), with ह् (h) becoming घ् (gh) |
वाग् (vā́g) |
| Before nasals | वाङ् (vā́ṅ), वाग् (vā́g) |
For nominative singular of राज् (rā́j):
| Sandhi forms of राट् (rā́ṭ) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause and voiceless consonants | राट् (rā́ṭ) |
| Before vowels | राड् (rā́ḍ), राळ् (rā́ḷ) (Rigvedic) |
| Before voiced consonants (except nasals), with ह् (h) becoming ढ् (ḍh) |
राड् (rā́ḍ) |
| Before nasals | राण् (rā́ṇ), राड् (rā́ḍ) |
For nominative singular of अनुष्टुभ् (anuṣṭúbh):
| Sandhi forms of अनुष्टुप् (anuṣṭúp) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause and voiceless consonants | अनुष्टुप् (anuṣṭúp) |
| Before vowels and voiced consonants (except nasals), with ह् (h) becoming भ् (bh) |
अनुष्टुब् (anuṣṭúb) |
| Before nasals | अनुष्टुम् (anuṣṭúm), अनुष्टुब् (anuṣṭúb) |
Words on -ṅ
[edit]For the nominative masculine singular of प्रत्यञ्च् (pratyáñc, “turned towards”):
| Sandhi forms of प्रत्यङ् (pratyáṅ) | |
|---|---|
| Before pause and consonants (except sibilants) | प्रत्यङ् (pratyáṅ) |
| Before vowels | प्रत्यङ्ङ् (pratyáṅṅ) |
| Before sibilants | प्रत्यङ् (pratyáṅ), प्रत्यङ्क् (pratyáṅk) |
Notes
[edit]- ^ The historical reason why long आ (ā) + इ (i) / उ (u) / ऋ (ṛ) doesn't result in resp. ऐ (ai) / औ (au) / आर् (ār) is probably that the laryngeal in for example *-aHi- disappeared without lengthening the *a, as it did when the word on *-aH was not combined.
- ^ Original final ओ (o) is rare; the only case where it is not uncombinable is the vocative singular of nouns on -u.
- ^ For the relevant rules for the Vedic accent, see Whitney, §135 a.
- ^ In theoretical description, they are converted to jihvāmūlīya ᳵ [x] before voiceless velar consonants क् (k) and ख् (kh), and to upadhmānīya ᳶ [ɸ] before voiceless labial consonants प् (p) and फ् (ph).
References
[edit]Bibliography
[edit]- Whitney, William Dwight (1889) Sanskrit Grammar, second edition, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, published 1950, →OCLC, pages 34-87
- MacDonell, A.A. (1910) Vedic Grammar, pages 59-76