User:Sumiaz/O'odham

Tepiman languages

Kroeber, 1939: "the Pima-Tepehuan distribution is peculiar; a belt or ribbon from the Gila to the Santiago, eight hundred miles in an air line, with a single interruption of a tenth that distance around the upper Fuerte; never touching the sea except in the desert of Papagueria, yet lying on the west of the Sirra Madre north of the brief break, and on the east flank to the south; altogether a unique distribution in North America. The component languages, which are closely similar, are Papago, Pima Alto and Bajo, Tepehuan, and Tepecano."
Sauer, 1934, noted of the belt that:
- It is broken by a deep intrusion of the Opata and Cahita languages, but Piman to the north and Tepehuan to the south were so similar that Spanish annalists used the terms interchangeably.
- There is very little dialectical variation.
- There is very little geographic or climatic continuity.
- There is high cultural diversity, ranging from nomadic hunter-gatherers to sedentary farmers.
The Piman or Tepiman languages are a family within the Uto-Aztecan group. Shaul and Hill (1998) identify the following branches:
1. Upper Piman, including Akimel O'odham (Pima) and Tohono O'odham (Papago) spoken in southern Arizona.
2. Altar Piman, historically spoken along the Altar and Concepción River valleys of northern Sonora.
3. Ati Piman, historically spoken along the Gulf of California.
4. Lower Piman, including Pima Bajo spoken around Onavas in Sonora. May include the now-extinct Nevome.
5. Mountain Piman, including Pima Bajo spoken around Maycoba and Yecora in Sonora, and Yepachic in Chihuahua.
6. Tepehuan, split into two major sub-branches: Northern Tepehuan, spoken in southern Chihuahua, and Southern Tepehuan, spoken in southern Durango.

Ati Piman

A variety documented around Atíl, Sonora by Jesuit missionary Ignaz Pfefferkorn.
Notable for being particularly divergent:
- Pronouns: serei "he, she, it"; niape "we"; pinapi "you (pl)"; seserei "they"
- Pronominal case markers: singular object -(u)m; plural object -ua; posessive -i
- Plurals are formed with the suffix -(b)uri, instead of by reduplication
- Imperatives are formed by truncation instead of suffixation

Numbers

	Upper (Tohono)	Altar	Ati	Lower (Onavas)	Lower (Nevome)	Mountain (Maycoba)	Mountain (Yepachic)	Tepehuan (Northern)	Tepehuan (SE)	Tepehuan (SW)
1	hemako	humai	humaco mato	hüma mado	maco (anim) maddo (inanim)	hemak	hemako	imóko	mad	himati hõmad
2	go꞉k	goc	kok	go:k	goc	go:k	goóka	goóka	gok	go:k
3	waik	vaic	weik	vaik	vaiko	vaik	vaika	vaíka	vaik	vaik
4	gi'ik	guicu	kik	gui'ik	guico macoba	maakav	maákova	maakóva	makov	makov
5	hetasp	hutasp	hamacu	héta'asp	utaspo	ma'vées	mavɨɨsi	taáma	hišcamam	ictuma:m
6	cu꞉dp	tup	rassiri	tu:tp	tupo	vusin	vusan			civhómad
9	humutk	tum bustamam	schabac	túmvestmá:m	tumbustamama	nuéw		tuvustyáma
10	westma꞉m	bustamam	bustamama	véstmá:m	bustamama	a'ipidvees	a'ipidve'es	baivustyáma	mambiš	mamvóc

Morphemes

G words - Generally concrete, tangible nouns; any word suffixed with "-dag." Arguments or predicates.
S- words - Stative verbs, referring to attributes or properties. Predicates or modifiers.
Zero element words - Words that take neither "s-" nor "g," referring to events or actions. Always predicates.
Mixed element words - Words that take "s-" but not always "g;" often derived words. Predicates or arguments.
Particles

G words

The g element is non-obligatory. It is always omitted when:
- A sentence starts with g.
- The sentence contains the copula wud.
- The word is within a postpositional phrase.
- The word functions as the predicate.

S- words

The s- element is non-obligatory. It is always omitted when:
- Preceded by the negative pi.

Derivational suffixes

Suffix	Attached to	Class change	Example
-a	∅-word	G-word	o'ohana "thing that was written"
-c-k-wua			mo'ockwua "to knock down with one's head"
-cud	∅-word	-	Example
-cud / -acud / -c	S-word	S- or ∅-word	cipkanacud "cause to work"
-dag	G-word	-	ki꞉dag "housing"
-dag	∅-word	G-word	cipkandag "job"
-dag / -adag	∅-word	S-word	s-ñe'idag "being good at singing"
-dam	∅-word	G-word	o'ohandam "one who writes"
-dkam / -adkam			s-ñeid'kam "one who is good at singing"
-g / -ig / -ag	G-word	S-word	s-ha꞉ṣanig "being full of saguaros"
-him / -ahim	∅-word	-	ñeokhim "to go along talking"
-id / -julid			ñeokjulid "to speak for someone"
-im	∅-word	S-word	s-hugim "wanting to eat"
-imc			s-hugimc "caused to want to eat"
-kam	G-word	G-word	ṣu꞉ṣkkam "one with shoes"
-kuḍ / -akuḍ	∅-word	G-word	o'ohanakuḍ "thing to write with"
-mad	G-word	∅-word	onmad "adding salt"
-meḍ / -ameḍ	∅-word	∅-word	pa꞉ntameḍ "went off to bake"
-pig	G-word	∅-word	onpig "removing salt"
-ṣ			mo'oṣ "to press with one's head"
-t	G-word	∅-word	ki꞉t "making a house"
-to			jukto "stopped raining"

Internal word structure

Based on Mathiot's "Papago Semantics," in Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 10.

PREFIX 2 - PREFIX 1 - STEM - SUFFIX 1 - SUFFIX 2 - SUFFIX 3 - SUFFIX 4

Position	Affix	Function
Prefix 2	b-	indefinite locative
Prefix 2	d-	indefinite human
Prefix 2	ṣ-	indefinite manner
Prefix 1	ñe꞉-	promptive
Prefix 1	wa-	assertive
Prefix 1	na-	interrogative
Prefix 1	ku-	disconnective
Prefix 1	ma-	connective
Suffix 1	-ḍ	distant
Suffix 1	-t	bounded
Suffix 2	-s	incognizant
Suffix 3	-p	potential
Suffix 3	-kĭ	evidential
Suffix 3	-ṣ	quotative
Suffix 4	-s	incognizant

Napt o piastam? "Are you on your way to the feast?"

na-	p	-t	o	piastam
Q	AUX.2SG	BND	NONFACT	to go to a feast

Napt am o piastam? "Do you plan on going to the feast?"

na-	p	-t	am	o	piastam
Q	AUX.2SG	BND		NONFACT	to go to a feast

Locative auxiliaries

	Visible	Nonvisible	Facing	Nonfacing Lateral	Nonfacing Nonlateral
Proximal	i / ia			in	im
Infradistal	∅		ab	an	am
Distal	ga	gḍ	ga	ganai	gamai
Ultradistal	ga'	ga꞉ṣ	ga꞉j	ga꞉n	ga꞉m

Grammar Notes

Plurals

Plural marking is non-obligatory and often omitted, especially when number can be inferred from context.
Speakers can disagree on the form of a plural, or whether a noun can be pluralized at all.
Hill and Zepeda (1998) describe a consultant who would not pluralize ceaḍagĭ "Gila monster", since it was so unlikely to find more than one of the large, solitary lizards in a single place. The plural form provided by other consultants was cecaḍagĭ.
Plurals are generally formed via reduplication:
gogs "dog" → gogogs

o꞉ṣaḍ "jaguar" → o'oṣaḍ
The rules that determine consonant changes and vowel length are not always clear, and can vary from speaker to speaker.
cu꞉l "hip, corner" → cu꞉cpul, cucpul, cu꞉cul

si꞉s "older sibling" → si꞉sig, si꞉si'a, si꞉si'ag, sisis

Multiplicity

Of things

Four categories: subject, object, extended, and referential
- Subject number, e.g. bagat "to get angry (sg)" → babgat "to get angry (pl)"
- Object number, e.g. huḍñid "to take a thing down" → huhuḍsid "to take things down"
- Extended number refers to things that are neither subjects nor objects, e.g. gogsga "to have a dog" → gogogsga "to have many dogs"
- Referential number is part the indefinite quantifier or stative verbs, e.g. cem "small (sg)" → ce'ecem "small (pl)"

Of events

Two categories: nonlocalized reiterative and successive
- Reiterative refers to an identical action repeated in rapid succession, e.g. bisck "to sneeze once" → biscek "to sneeze several times"
- Successive refers to several actors performing the same action one after another, e.g. i'i- "to drink" → i'iad "to drink in succession"

Of places

Three categories: postpositional, numeral, and locative
- Postpositional number, e.g. ba꞉ṣo "against a thing" → babṣo "against many things"
- Numeral number, e.g. go꞉k "two" → go'ogok "groups of two"
- Locative number, e.g. ama'i "down there (in one place)" → a'amai "down there (in many places)"

Localized multiplicity

Three categories: nominal, localized aspect, and personal
- Four types of nominals: type 1, type 2, mass, and aggregate
  - Type 1 nouns have three levels: singular, plural, and distributive, e.g. wisilo, wipsilo, wippsilo "calf/calves"
  - Type 2 nouns have two levels: singular and nonsingular, e.g. ban, ba꞉ban "coyote/coyotes"
  - Mass nouns have two levels: singular and nonsingular, e.g. ṣudagĭ, ṣuṣudagĭ "water/waters"
  - Aggregate nouns have two levels: nondistributive and distributive, e.g. taḍai, tataḍai "roadrunner/roadrunners"
- Three types of localized aspects: class 1, class 2, and class 3
  - Class 1 verbs have three levels: unitive, repetitive, and distributive, e.g. nai, na꞉nda, na꞉nad "to make a fire"
  - Class 2 verbs have two levels: unitive and nonunitive, e.g. hehem, hehhem "to laugh"
  - Class 3 verbs have two levels: nondistributive and distributive, e.g. cekṣan, ceckṣan "to draw a line"

Derivations

ce꞉kĭ "to put something somewhere"

	Definite	Indefinite	Correlative	Durative	Interrogative	Hortative	Imperative (sg)	Completive
"to go a distance" (sg)	ceka				cekahim
"to go a distance" (distr)	ce꞉cka
"to put somewhere" (sgo)	ce꞉		cekka'i (imd)		cekhim	ce꞉kĭ	cekañ	cekiok cekioka'i (imd)
"to get put somewhere" (sg)	ece꞉							ecekiok ecekioka'i (imd)
"to put somewhere" (sgo, repet)		cecka		ceckad	ceckahim
"to put somewhere" (sgo, distr)	ce꞉cka					ce꞉cka
"to put somewhere for somebody" (sgo)	ce꞉kĭ	cekid			cekidahim	cekid
"to have where it was put" (sgo)		cekĭc		cekĭcid	cekĭckahim
"to carry" (sgo)		cekĭcug

hidoḍ "to cook"

hidoḍas "to have been cooked"
hidoḍakuḍ "cooking pot"
hihidoḍdam "a cook (one who cooks many things)"

	Definite	Indefinite	Correlative	Durative	Interrogative	Hortative	Imperative (sg)	Imperative (pl)	Completive
"to cook something" (sg, unit)	hido	hidoḍ	hidoḍk hidoḍka'i (imm)			hidoḍ	hidoḍañ	hidoḍo
"to cook something repeatedly" (repet)		hihidoḍ
"to cook several things" (mult)	hihido					hihidoḍ
"to cook" (distr)	hihhidoḍ					hihhidoḍ
"to get cooked" (refl)	ehido
"to cook something for someone" (sg)	hidol					hidolid
"to cook several things for someone" (sg)	hihidol					hihidolid

ge'e "big"

	Definite	Indefinite	Correlative	Immediative	Durative	Interrogative
"to be big" (sg)	ge'ejk	ge'ej			ge'ejkad	ge'ejkahim
"to be big" (pl)		ge'ege'eḍaj
"to grow" (sg, intr)	ge'e	ge'eḍ	ge'eḍk	ge'eḍka'i	ge'eḍad	ge'elhim
"to grow" (pl, intr)	ge'ege'e	ge'egeḍ	ge'egeḍk	ge'egeḍka'i	ge'egelhim
"to grow" (sgo, tr)	ge'el	ge'elid
"to grow" (plo, tr)	ge'ege'el	ge'ege'elid

Short words

A꞉ - see "a꞉g"
AB - 1. postp, on something; 2. stat, to be up to someone
A꞉G - 1. tr, to say something; 2. refl, to confide
AHI - 1. tr, to reach; 2. refl, to reach a state
AI - see "ahi"
AJ - 1. adj, long and narrow
A꞉J - 1. tr, to put something around the neck
AKĬ - 1. n, wash, arroyo
ALI - 1. n, child; 2. stat, to be a child
ALO - 1. adv, a while, almost
A꞉N - 1. n, desert broom
AP - 1. adj, good; 2. adv, well, able
APE - 1. intr, to be good; 2. tr, to please; 3. intr.impers, to be fine; 4. tr.impers, to be okay with; 5. refl, to get along
AṢ - 1. tr, to laugh at something
AT - 1. n, rear, end; 2. stat, to have a rear end, to be the end
A'AI - 1. adv, in many directions; 2. adv, one another
BA꞉ - 1. pron, where?
BAN - 1. n, coyote
E꞉B - 1. intr, to stop crying
EḌ - see "eḍa"
EḌA - 1. postp, in, inside; 2. postp, at (time); 3. adv, in the middle; 4. conj, while, then, but, still
EP - 1. part, again, also, too
EṢ - 1. n, chin; 2. stat, to have a chin
I - 1. stat, to be it
IA - 1. n, saguaro fruit pulp; 2. tr, to pick/peel saguaro fruits
I꞉'A - 1. stat, to be here
I꞉DA - 1. adj, this
I꞉'E - 1. tr, to drink repeatedly
I'I - 1. tr, to drink; 2. refl, to be drunk by someone
I꞉M - 1. tr, to address using kinship terms
I꞉N - 1. n, soot
I꞉S - 1. stat, to be in a container
I꞉T - 1. tr, to get a containerful
O - 1. conj, or
O꞉ - see "oḍ"
O꞉B - 1. n, Apache
OḌ - 1. tr, to harvest
O꞉G - 1. n, father, father's older brother; 2. stat, to be a father
OI - 1. part, soon, right away
OIA - 1. conj, consequently, then, however
OID - 1. tr, to follow
ON - 1. n, salt
O꞉'O - 1. n, bones
O꞉'OG - 1. n, tears; 2. impers, to be full of bones
O꞉T - 1. intr, to drip, leak
OVI - 1. n, opponent, partner
U'A - 1. tr, to bring along
U꞉G - 1. n, bones
UM - 1. adj, high; 2. stat, to be high
U꞉S - 1. n, stick, post, bush
U꞉Ṣ - 1. n, stinger, arrowhead; 2. stat, to have a stinger
U'U - 1. tr, to get, take; 2. refl, to be captured, chosen
UWĬ - 1. n, woman of childbearing age, sister, female; 2. stat, to be a woman
U꞉W - 1. stat, to have a particular smell

Orthography

See also: O'odham language (Orthography)

There are currently two spelling standards for O'odham: Alvarez-Hale and Saxton. Primary entries are in Alvarez-Hale with some exceptions:
- No word-initial glottal stops ', so 'O'odham is rendered O'odham.
- Wiktionary does not support entries containing the regular colon :, so all instances must be replaced with the modifier letter colon ꞉.
V and W are broadly interchangeable. The former predominates in Akimel O'odham and the latter in Tohono O'odham. Wikipedia lists vainom "knife" and wuai "(blacktail) deer" as representative words; however these can also be written vainomĭ/wainom and huavĭ/huawĭ, depending on the dialect and personal preference of the speaker. New entries on Wiktionary will use W with the understanding that:
1. The letter W may be realized as /v/ or /w/ depending on the dialect.
2. A single spelling is chosen for convenience, but no single spelling is considered "correct".

Templates

Nouns

Entries

Anatomy

kahio, kakio
na꞉k (nahk), na꞉nk

Animals

Singular	Plural	English	Scientific name
babad	babbad
ban	ba꞉ban	coyote	Canis latrans
ba'ag	ba꞉ba'ag (babag)	golden eagle	Aquila chrysaetos
ca꞉ŋgo	cacaŋgo	Example	Example
cu꞉wĭ	Example	Example	Example
gogs	gogogs

Botany

Aggregative/Distributive

Singular	Plural	English	Scientific name
*bawĭ	ba꞉bawĭ	tepary bean	Phaseolus acutifolius
*cucuwis	cucuis	organpipe cactus	Stenocereus thurberi
*gepĭ		watermelon	Citrullus lanatus
*hanamĭ		cane cholla	Cylindropuntia imbricata
ha꞉ṣañ	hahaṣañ	saguaro	Carnegiea gigantea

Birds

Aggregative/Distributive

Singular	Plural	English	Scientific name
hogkaḍ	hohogkaḍ	cactus wren	Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus
*kuḍuwic	kulwickam	crissal thrasher	Toxostoma crissale
*ku꞉ku'ul		burrowing owl	Athene cunicularia
*gi꞉sobĭ		verdin	Auriparus flaviceps
[[]]	[[]]	w:	'
[[]]	[[]]	w:	'
[[]]	[[]]	w:	'
[[]]	[[]]	w:	'
[[]]	[[]]	w:	'

People/Kinship

Miscellaneous

Placenames

English/Spanish	O'odham	Meaning
Ak-Chin	Akĭ Ciñ	"mouth of a wash"
Ali Chuk	Ali Jeg	"little clearing"
Ali Chukson	Ali Cuk Ṣon	"little black foothill"
Anegam	A꞉ngam	"place with desert brooms"
Baboquivari	Wa꞉w Giwulk	"constricted rock"
Caborca	Kawulk	"hill with rocks"
Chiawuli Tak	Jiawul Dak	"barrel cactus sits"
Chukut Kuk	Cukuḍ Ku꞉k	"owl hoots"
Comobabi	Ko꞉m Wawhi	"hackberry spring"
Guevavi	Ge'e Wawhi	"big spring"
Gu Achi	Ge'e Aj	"big narrow"
Gu Vo	Ge'e Wo'o	"big pond"
Hickiwan	Hikiwañ	"jagged"
Komatke	Komaḍk	"flat"
Saric	Ṣa'alk	"mountain pass"
Sasabe	Ṣaṣawk	"where there is an echo"
Sif Oidak	Siw Oidag	"bitter field"
Tubac	Cu꞉wag	"full of jackrabbits"
Tubutama	Cew Da꞉m	"long on top"
Tucson	Cuk Ṣon	"black foothill"
Tucubavia	Cuk Wahia	"black spring"
Tumacacori	Cemag Gakolk	"crooked limestone"
Tumamoc	Cemamagĭ	"horned toad"
Tutumaoyda	Cu'ucum Oidag	"small fields"

Months

English	[1]	[2]	[3]
July	Jukiabig Maṣad "Big Rains Month"	Jukiabig Maṣad "Rainy Month"	Ha꞉ṣañ-Bahidag Maṣad "Saguaro Crop Month"
August	Sopol 'Esabig Maṣad "Short Planting Month"	Ṣopol E'esbig Maṣad "Short Planting Month"	Ṣopol 'Esiabig Maṣad "Short Planting Month"
September	Wasai Gakidag Maṣad "Dry Grass Month"	Vaṣai Gakidag Maṣad "Dry Grass Month"	Vaṣai-Gakidag Maṣad "Dried Out Month"
October	I'al Ju꞉pig Maṣad "Small Rains Month"	Sepijig Maṣad "Cold month"	Cem She꞉pijig Maṣad / Pipiast Maṣad "Small Cold Month" / "Month of Feasts"
November	S-ke꞉g S-he꞉pijig Maṣad "Pleasant Cold Month"	Soam Maṣad / U'velig Maṣad "Yellow Month" / "Deer Month"	'Uam Maṣad / Vi'ihañig Maṣad "Yellow Month" / "Frosty Month"
December	Ge'e S-he꞉pijig Maṣad "Big Cold Month"	Skomagĭ Maṣad "Gray Month"	Ge'e She꞉pijig Maṣad "Big Cold Month"
January	Gakimdag Maṣad "Animals Lose Fat Month"	Aupa I'ivagidag Maṣad "Cottonwood Leafing Month"	'U꞉walig Maṣad / Gi꞉khoḍag Maṣad "Deer Month" / "Marigold Month"
February	U꞉walig Maṣad "Deer Month"	Aupa Hyosik Maṣad "Cottonwood Blooming Month"	Ko꞉magi Maṣad / To꞉nto Maṣad "Gray Month" / "Crazy Month"
March	Ce꞉dagi Maṣad "Green Month"	Kui I'ivagidag Maṣad "Mesquite Leafing Month"	Ce꞉dagi Maṣad "Green Month"
April	Uam Maṣad "Yellow Month"	Kui Hyosik Maṣad "Mesquite Blooming Month"	'Uam Maṣad "Yellow Month"
May	U'us Wihogdag Maṣad "Mesquite Bean Harvest Month"	Kai Cuklig Maṣad "Black Seed Month"	Sko'ok Maṣad "Painful Month"
June	Ha꞉ṣañ Ba꞉k Maṣad "Saguaro Fruit Month"	Haṣañ Baidag Maṣad "Saguaro Fruit Month"	Stoñ Maṣad "Hot Month"

[1] Tohono O'odham Traditional Calendar, Tohono O'odham Community Action.
[2] O'odham Ñiokĭ O'ohana, Salt River O'odham Piipaash Language Program.
[3] Mathiot M. Tohono O'odham-English Dictionary.