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Latest comment: 3 months ago by Wise Bridges Fool Walls in topic An explanation of the structure 〜は〜が

An explanation of the particle は

[edit]

Meaning/Function: A particle which marks a topic or a contrastive element.

English equivalents: talking about ~; as for ~; the

Related expressions: が(1)

Key sentences:

  1. (わたし)学生(がくせい)だ/です。watashi wa gakusei da/desu.I am a student.
  2. 杉田(すぎた)さん()きますが(わたし)()きません。sugita-san wa ikimasu ga watashi wa ikimasen.Mr. Sugita will go (there) but I won’t go.

Examples:

  1. ジョーンズさん今日本語(いまにほんご)勉強(べんきょう)している。jōnzu-san wa ima nihongo o benkyōshite iru.Mr. Jones is studying Japanese now.
  2. この(まち)大学(だい)(くがふた)つある。kono machi ni wa daigaku ga futatsu aru.There are two universities in this town.
  3. (わたし)ビール()みますが(さけ)()みません。watashi wa bīru wa nomimasu ga sake wa nomimasen.I drink beer but don’t drink sake.
  4. 春子(はるこ)人形(にんぎょう)を、秋子(あきこ)絵本(えほん)をあげた。haruko ni wa ningyō o, akiko ni wa ehon o ageta.I gave Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.

Notes:

  1. The origin of は can be traced to the conditional marker ば. (Compare the spellings of wa (は) and ba (ば).) (See Talk:ば) However, in contemporary Japanese, は is used, in general, to mark information which the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer’s register. In other words, when は marks X, the speaker usually assumes that the hearer knows what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be marked by はin ordinary circumstances are as follows:
    1. Common nouns whose referents have already been introduced into the discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. Example:

      (1) 昔々(むかしむかし)一人(ひとり)おじいさんが()んでいました。mukashimukashi, hitori no o-jī-san ga sunde imashita.Once upon a time, there lived an old man.

      おじいさんはとてもやさしい(ひと)でした。o-jī-san wa totemo yasashī hito deshita.The old man was a very gentle man.
    2. Proper nouns. Examples:
      (2) アメリカamerikaAmerica
      スミスさんsumisu-sanMr. Smith
    3. Nouns whose referents can be uniquely identified (that is, they are one of a kind). Examples:
      (3) 太陽(たいよう)taiyōsun
      (そら)sorasky
    4. Generic names. Examples:
      (4) (ひと)hitoman
      (くるま)kurumacar

    It is noted that は never marks WH-words such as なに (what) and だれ (who). Thus, (5) is ungrammatical.
    (5) (unacceptable) だれはパーティーに()ましたか。dare wa pātī ni kimashita ka.Who came to the party?

    This is because WH-words do not refer to a known thing and, therefore, their referents can never be in the hearer’s register.
  2. More specifically, は marks a topic and/or a contrastive element. When は is used as a topic marker, as in XはY, X is something the rest of the sentence (i.e. Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls on Y or part of Y. (Compare Talk:が) The topic Xは normally appears at the beginning of a sentence.
  3. は is also used to mark a contrastive element, as in Key Sentence (B), Examples (c) and (d). However, whether は is being used as a topic marker or as a contrastive marker is not always clear. This is not clear particularly when there is one element X marked by は but there is no other element Y explicitly contrasted with X. Here are some general rules for determining whether a given は is topical or contrastive.
    1. When more than one は appears in a sentence, as in “XはYはZは…”, the first は is usually understood to be the topic marker, the second は is more contrastive than the first one, the third one is more contrastive than the second, and so on. Examples:

      (6) 太郎(たろう)テニス出来(でき)ます。tarō wa tenisu wa dekimasu.Taro can play tennis.

      (7) (ぼく)今日(きょう)テニスしない。boku wa kyō wa tenisu wa shinai.I won’t play tennis today.
    2. When Xは is pronounced with stress, it marks a contrastive element. Examples:
      (8) (わたし)一年(いちねん)です。watashi wa ichinen desu.(I don’t know about other people but, at least) Í am a freshman.
      (9) ビール()みます。bīru wa nomimasu.(I don’t drink other drinks but) I drink béer.
  4. When は is used in negative sentences, it marks the negated element. This is a special use of は as a contrastive marker. Compare the following sentences:

    (10) a. (わたし)はきのうボストンへ()かなかった。watashi wa kinō bosuton e ikanakatta.I didn’t go to Boston yesterday.
    b. (わたし)はきのうボストンへ()かなかった。watashi wa kinō wa bosuton e ikanakatta.I didn’t go to Boston yésterday.
    c. (わたし)はきのうボストンへ()かなかった。watashi wa kinō bosuton e wa ikanakatta.I didn’t go to Bóston yesterday.

    (10a) simply states that the speaker didn’t go to Boston yesterday. (10b) negates yesterday, implying that the speaker went to Boston on other days or that he usually goes to Boston on that day but didn’t yesterday. Likewise, (10c) negates to Boston, implying that the speaking went somewhere but it was not to Boston.
  5. There are rules for particle ellipsis when は marks noun phrases with case markers (i.e. particles such as the subject marker が (ga(1)) and the direct object marker を (o)).
    1. When は marks Xが or Xを, が or を must drop. (Examples (a) and (c))
    2. When は marks Xへ or Xに(6) (location), へ or に optionally drop. (Example (b))
    3. When は marks Xに(1)/に(2)/に(3)/に(4) (time, indirect object, agent, contact), Xで, Xと, Xから, Xまで or Xより, the case marker usually remains and は follows it, forming a double particle. (Example (d)) More examples follow:

      (11) ここではたばこを()わないでください。koko de wa tabako o suwanaide kudasai.Please don’t smoke here.

      (12) 田中(たなか)さんとはよく()います。tanaka-san to wa yoku aimasu.I see Mr. Tanaka often.
  6. The topical は does not appear in subordinate clauses, as in (13).

    (13) a. 花子(はなこ)(わたし)が/(unacceptable)はきのう(さけ)()んだことを()っている。hanako wa watashi ga / (unacceptable) wa kinō sake o nonda koto o shitte iru.Hanako knows that I drank sake yesterday.

    b. (わたし)が/(unacceptable)は()んだ(ほん)は「雪国(ゆきぐに)」です。watashi ga / (unacceptable) wa yonda hon wa “yukiguni” desu.The book I read was Snow Country.

Makino, Seiichi, and Michio Tsutsui. A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. Tokyo, The Japan Times, Ltd., 1994, pp. 516-519.

Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 17:04 11 September 2024 (UTC) Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 23:05, 11 September 2024 (UTC)Reply

An explanation of the particle は (Intermediate)

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Meaning/Function: A particle which emphatically affirms or negates the proposition represented by the preceding verbal and other related elements.

English equivalents: [emphatic] (do/does/did) Verb; will Verb; (am/are/is/was/were) Adjective/Noun; (not) Verb/Adjective/Noun

Related expressions: ことは

Key sentences:

  1. ()はしますが、(なに)手伝(てつだ)えませんよ。iki wa shimasu ga, nanimo tetsudaemasen yo.I am going (there) but I cannot help you, all right?
  2. (つか)れてはいるが、まだ(やす)みたくない。tsukarete wa iru ga, mada yasumi takunai.I am tired but I don’t want to take a break yet.
  3. あの(おとこ)には説明(せつめい)しても()かりはしない。ano otoko ni wa setsumeishite mo wakari wa shinai.That guy would not understand even if you explained it to him.
  4. あのズボンは(やす)はあるが、ちょっと時代遅(じだいおく)れだ。ano zubon wa yasuku wa aru ga, chotto jidaiokure da.Those pants are cheap but they are a little too old-fashioned.
  5. この(ほん)内容(ないよう)(かんが)えれば(けっ)して(たか)はない。kono hon wa naiyō o kangaereba kesshite takaku wa nai.This book is not expensive at all when you consider its content.

Formation:

  1. Verb masu stem は (する(が) / しない)
    (はな)しは(する(が)/しない)hanashi wa (suru (ga) / shinai)someone will tell (but) / will not tell
  2. Verb te form は (いる(が) / いない), (みる(が) / みない)
    ()べては(いる(が)/いない)tabete wa (iru (ga) / inai)someone is eating (but) / is not eating
  3. I-Adjective stem くは (ある(が) / ない)
    面白(おもしろ)くは(ある(が)/ない)omoshiroku wa (aru (ga) / nai)something is interesting (but) / is not interesting
  4. (Na-Adjective stem / Noun) では (ある(が) / ない)
    便利(べんり)では (ある(が)/ない)benride wa (aru (ga) / nai)something is convenient (but) / is not convenient
    学生(がくせい)では (ある(が)/ない)gakusei de wa (aru (ga) / nai)someone is a student (but) / is not a student

Examples:

  1. (さけ)()するが、それほど()きではない。sake wa nomi wa suru ga, sore hodo sukide wa nai.I do drink but don’t like it very much.
  2. (かれ)日本語(にほんご)()するが、(はな)せはしない。kare wa nihongo o yome wa suru ga, hanase wa shinai.He can read Japanese but cannot speak it.
  3. 彼女(かのじょ)はベッドに(よこ)になっているが、()()いている。kanojo wa beddo ni yoko ni natte wa iru ga, me wa aite iru.She is lying in bed but her eyes are open.
  4. 試験(しけん)()けてみるが、(とお)自信(じしん)全然(ぜんぜん)ない。shiken o ukete wa miru ga, tōru jishin wa zenzen nai.I will take the exam (and see what will happen), but I have no confidence that I will pass it.
  5. (かれ)(なに)()っても()しない。kare wa nani o itte mo kiki wa shinai.He does not listen, no matter what we tell him.
  6. この花瓶(かびん)(たか)あるが、それだけの値打(ねう)ちはある。kono kabin wa takaku wa aru ga, sore dake no neuchi wa aru.This case is expensive but it is valuable to that extent.
  7. この問題(もんだい)はよく(かんが)えれば(むずか)しくないはずだ。kono mondai wa yoku kangaereba muzukashiku wa nai hazu da.If you think carefully, this problem should not be difficult.
  8. あの(おとこ)優秀(ゆうしゅう)あったが、不正(ふせい)なことをしたので(くび)になった。ano otoko wa yūshūde wa atta ga, fuseina koto o shita node kubi ni natta.He was smart but he was fired because he did something illegal.
  9. (かれ)日本人(にほんじん)あるが、あまり日本語(にほんご)(はな)せない。kare wa nihonjin de wa aru ga, amari nihongo o hanasenai.He is Japanese but cannot speak Japanese well.

Notes:

  1. Affirmative forms such as Verb masu stem は する, I-Adjective stem くは ある, (Na-Adjective stem / Noun) では あるoften appear with the conjunction が in contrastive sentences. (See Talk:は)
  2. Na-Adjective stem では ない and Noun で は ない are, in fact, the ordinary negative forms of Na-Adjective and Noun + Copula and do not express any special emphasis.
  3. When auxiliaries occur with Verb te form, は follows Verb te form, as in Formation (ii). When auxiliaries occur with Verb masu stem, however, は follows the auxiliaries, as in (1).

    (1) a. (あそ)びたい->(あそ)びたくはある(が)asobitai -> asobitaku wa aru (ga)want to play
    b. ()ちそうだ->()ちそうではある(が)ochi sōda -> ochi sōde wa aru (ga)looks like it’s about to fall down

    c. しゃべりすぎる->しゃべりすぎはする(が)shaberi sugiru -> shaberi sugi wa suru (ga)talk too much
  4. In casual conversation, sound changes may occur in Verb masu stem は しない, as in (2).
    (2) Grade 1 verbs:
    ~ (Consonant)Vowel は しない –> ~ (Consonant) や しない
    Examples ()きはしない->()きゃしないiki wa shinai -> ikya shinaiSomeone does not go -> Someone doesn’t go
    ()いはしない->()やしないkai wa shinai -> kaya shinaiSomeone does not buy -> Someone doesn’t buy
    Grade 2 verbs and irregular verbs:
    ~ (Consonant)Vowel は しない –> ~ (Consonant)Vowelや しない
    Examples ()はしない->()やしないmi wa shinai -> miya shinaiSomeone does not see -> Someone doesn’t see
    ()べはしない->()べやしないtabe wa shinai -> tabeya shinaiSomeone does not eat -> Someone doesn’t eat
    しはしない->しやしないshi wa shinai -> shiya shinaiSomeone does not do -> Someone doesn’t do
    ()はしない->()やしないki wa shinai -> kiya shinaiSomeone does not come -> Someone doesn’t come

Related expression:

Sentences with the emphatic particle は can be rephrased using the structure X ことは X, as in [1]; however, X ことはX is more emphatic than は.
[1] a. ()くことは()きますが、(なに)手伝(てつだ)えませんよ。iku koto wa ikimasu ga, nanimo tetsudaemasen yo.I am indeed going (there) but I cannot help you, all right? (Same as Key Sentence (A))
b. (つか)れていることは((つか)れて)いるが、まだ(やす)みたくない。tsukarete iru koto wa (tsukarete) iruga, mada yasumi takunai.I am indeed tired but I don’t want to take a break yet. (Same as Key Sentence (B))
c. あのズボンは(やす)いことは(やす)が、ちょっと時代遅(じだいおく)れだ。ano zubon wa yasui koto wa yasuiga, chotto jidaiokure da.Those pants are indeed cheap but they are a little too old-fashioned. (Same as Key Sentence (D))
This structure is usually not used for negative sentences. (See Talk:こと)

Makino, Seiichi, and Michio Tsutsui. A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar. Tokyo, The Japan Times, Ltd., 1995, pp. 564-567.

Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 21:09 13 September 2024 (UTC) Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 01:09, 14 September 2024 (UTC)Reply

An explanation of the structure 〜は〜だ

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Meaning/Function: Someone or something is/was someone or something or is/was in some state, or will do/does/did something.

Key sentences:

  1. これは(ほん)だ/です。kore wa hon da / desu.This is a book.
  2. コンサートは八時(はちじ)からだ/です。konsāto wa hachiji kara da / desu.The concert starts ateight o’clock. (literally, “The concert is from eight o’clock.”)

Examples:

  1. あの(ひと)先生(せんせい)ano hito wa sensei da.That person is a teacher.
  2. (わたし)ジョーンズですwatashi wa jōnzu desu.I am Jones.
  3. 授業(じゅぎょう)四時(よじ)までですjugyō wa yoji made desu.I have classes till four o’clock. (literally, “My classes are till four o’clock.”)
  4. 今度(こんど)試合(しあい)ワシントン大学(だいがく)kondo no shiai wa washinton daigaku to da.The next game is against the University of Washington.

Notes:

  1. “AはBだ” is probably the most basic sentence structure in Japanese. The very basic meaning of this construction is “A is B”. However, this pattern can convey more than that meaning. For example, the second sentence in (1) literally means ‘My wife is tea’, but actually means ‘My wife drinks tea.’ Here the copula だ is used in place of 飲む (drink).

    (1) (わたし)毎朝(まいあさ)コーヒーを()む。家内(かない)紅茶(こうちゃ)watashi wa maiasa kōhī o nomu. kanai wa kōcha da.I drink coffee every morning. My wife drinks (black) tea. (literally, “I drink coffee every morning. My wife is (black) tea.”)
    In fact, this structure is used frequently in conversation, as in (2), where the copula です in B’s sentence means 行きます (am going).
    (2) A: (わたし)はハワイへ()きます。watashi wa hawai e ikimasu.I’m going to Hawaii.
    B: (わたし)フロリダですwatashi wa furorida desu.I’m going to Florida. (literally, “I am Florida.”)
    In general, the copula can be used in place of a predicate if the meaning can be understood from the context. Note the following examples:
    (3) このレストランはすしがおいしい。あのレストランてんぷらkono resutoran wa sushi ga oishī. ano resutoran wa tenpura da.Sushi is good at this restaurant. At that restaurant tempura is good. (literally, “Sushi is good at this restaurant. That restaurant is tempura.”)
    (4) ディックはスケートが上手(じょうず)だ。ポールスキーdikku wa sukēto ga jōzuda. pōru wa sukī da.Dick is good at (ice) skating. Paul is good at skiing. (literally, “Dick is good at (ice) skating. Paul is skiing.”)
    (5) みつ()はお(かあ)さんが病気(びょうき)だ。つとむ(とう)さんmitsuko wa o-kā-san ga byōki da. tsutomu wa o-tō-san da.In Mitsuko’s family, her mother is ill. In Tsutomu’s family, his father is ill. (literally, “In Mitsuko’s family, her mother is ill. Tsutomu is his father.”)
    What the copula だ means may be understood from the linguistic context, as in (1) – (5), or from the extra-linguistic context, as in (6).

    (6) [In an order situation at a restaurant] (ぼく)うなぎboku wa unagi da.I’ll have eel/I’d like eel. (literally, “I am an eel.”)
  2. In “AはBだ”, B may be a noun phrase, as in Key Sentence (A) or a noun phrase with a particle, as in Key Sentence (B). General rules about particle ellipsis and retention in this construction follow:
    1. が, を, へ and に (time (に(1)), location (に(6))) must drop. (See (1) – (6).)
    2. に (indirect object (に(2)), agent (に(3)), direct contact (に(4))) and で (location (で(1)), means (で(2))) may drop. Examples:

      (7) A: (ぼく)はケンたのんだ。bokuhakennitanonda.I asked Ken.
      B: (ぼく)アンディ()boku wa andi (ni) da.I asked Andy.
      A: (ぼく)はアパート勉強(べんきょう)する。boku wa apāto de benkyōsuru.I study in my apartment.

      B: (ぼく)図書館(としょかん)()boku wa toshokan (de) da.I study at the library.
    3. で (reason), と, から and まで usually do not drop. Examples:
      (9) A: (ぼく)病気(びょうき)(やす)んだ。boku wa byōki de yasunda.I was absent because of illness.
      B: (ぼく)けが/(unacceptable)∅boku wa kega de / (unacceptable)∅ da.I was absent because I got injured. (literally, “I was absent because of an injury.”)
      (10) A: (わたし)一郎(いちろう)(おど)りました。watashi wa ichirō to odorimashita.I danced with Ichiro.
      B: (わたし)信男(のぶお)/(unacceptable)∅ですwatashi wa nobuo to / (unacceptable)∅ desu.I danced with Nobuo.
  3. When the copula is used for a predicate, it usually appears in the non-past tense regardless of the tense of the predicate, as in (7) and (9).
  4. In “AはBだ”, Aは may drop if it can be understood from context, as seen in (11).

    (11) A: それは(なん)ですか。sore wa nan desu ka.What is that?

    B: (これは)辞書(じしょ)です。(kore wa) jisho desu.This is a dictionary.

Makino, Seiichi, and Michio Tsutsui. A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. Tokyo, The Japan Times, Ltd., 1994, pp. 521-524.

Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 17:49 14 September 2024 (UTC) Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 21:49, 14 September 2024 (UTC)Reply

An explanation of the structure 〜は〜が

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Meaning/Function: A construction which relates a non-controllable state of something or someone to a topic.

Key sentences:

  1. (わたし)英語(えいご)()かる/()かります。watashi wa eigo ga wakaru/wakarimasu.I understand English. (literally, “To me, English is understandable.”)
  2. 花子(はなこ)()がきれいだ/きれいです。hanako wa me ga kireida/kireidesu.Hanako has pretty eyes. (literally, “Speaking of Hanako, her eyes are pretty.”)
  3. 辞書(じしょ)はウェブスターがいい/いいです。jisho wa webusutā ga ī/īdesu.Talking about dictionaries, Webster’s is good.

Examples:

  1. たかしはテニスが上手(じょうず)だ。takashi wa tenisu ga jōzuda.Takashi is good at tennis. (literally, “Speaking of Takashi, his [skill at] tennis is proficient.”)
  2. (わたし)はボーイフレンドがほしい。watashi wa bōifurendo ga hoshī.I want a boyfriend. (literally, “Talking about me, a boyfriend is wanted.”)
  3. (ぼく)はフットボールが()きだ。boku wa futtobōru ga sukida.I like football. (literally, “To me, football is my favourite.”)
  4. (ぞう)(はな)(なが)い。zō wa hana ga nagai.Elephants have long trunks. (literally, “Speaking of elephants, their noses are long.”)
  5. (わたし)はおなかがすいた。watashi wa onaka ga suita.I am hungry. (literally, “Talking about me, my stomach got empty.”)
  6. ミラーさんは()(たか)い。mirā-san wa se ga takai.Mr. Miller is tall.
  7. 日本(にほん)はステーキが(たか)い。nihon wa sutēki ga takai.Steak is expensive in Japan. (literally, “Talking about Japan, steak is expensive [there].”)
  8. (うみ)日本海(にほんかい)がきれいだ。umi wa nihonkai ga kireida.Talking about the sea, the Japan Sea is clean.
  9. 日本(にほん)野球(やきゅう)はどこが(つよ)いですか。nihon no yakyū wa doko ga tsuyoidesu ka.Talking about baseball in Japan, which [baseball team] is strong?

Notes:

  1. “AはBがC” is one of the basic constructions in Japanese. In this construction, C usually expresses something about B and “BがC” expresses something about A, as illustrated in (1).
    (1) A<-は->(B<-が->C)
  2. Sentences utilizing this construction may be categorized into three classes:
    1. A is human, and “BがC” expresses A’s physical and/or mental state, for example, ability or desire, as in Key Sentence (1), Examples (a), (b) and (c).
    2. B is part of A, and C expresses something about B, which, in turn, expresses something about A, as in Key Sentence (2), Examples (d), (e), (f) and (g).
    3. B is a member of A, and C expresses something about B, as in Key Sentence (3), Examples (h) and (i).
  3. Listed below are the verbs and adjectives which usually require the “AはBがC” construction. (Sentences with these verbs and adjectives belong to Class (A) in Note 2.)

    (2) Ability:
    ()かるwakarube understandable; understand
    出来(でき)dekirucan be done; can do
    られる(2)rareru (2)can
    ()えるmierube visible
    ()こえるkikoerube audible
    上手(じょうず)jōzudagood at
    下手(へた)hetadapoor at
    得意(とくい)tokuidaproudly good at
    苦手(にがて)nigatedaashamedly poor at
    (See Talk:聞こえる; Talk:見える; Talk:られる)

    (3) Desire/Need:
    ほしい(1)hoshī (1)desirable; want
    たいtaiwant to
    いる(3)iru (3)be necessary; need
    必要(ひつよう)hitsuyōdanecessary
    (See Talk:ほしい; Talk:いる; Talk:たい)

    (4) Fondness:
    ()きだsukidabe liked; like
    きらいだkiraidabe disliked; dislike
    (See Talk:嫌い; Talk:好き)

    (5) Emotion:
    はずかしいhazukashīembarrassing
    にくらしいnikurashīhateful
    こわいkowaifearful
    くやしいkuyashīvexing
    なつかしいnatsukashīnostalgic
    おそろしいosoroshīdreadful

    うらやましいurayamashīenviable

Makino, Seiichi, and Michio Tsutsui. A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. Tokyo, The Japan Times, Ltd., 1994, pp. 525-527.

Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 8:44 15 September 2024 (UTC) Wise Bridges Fool Walls (talk) 12:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC)Reply